Appendix 3. Suggested chemical restraint agents, regimens and doses

Larry Vogelnest

The capture, physical and chemical restraint of Austral­ian mammals are covered in Chapter 9. In this Appendix, unless otherwise indicated, drugs and dose recommenda­tions are based on the author’s experience, the experience of others, or were sourced from Vogelnest and Woods (2008), Holz (2014a), Holz (2014b), West et al.

Where more than one protocol is listed, preferred pro­tocols are marked with an asterisk ([††] [‡‡]).

Selected drug names are abbreviated: alfaxalone (alfax); atipamazole (atipam); butorphanol (but); dexme­detomidine (dexmed); diazepam (diaz); ketamine (ket); medetomidine (med); midazolam (midaz); tiletamine/ zolazepam (TZ).

• Zuclopenthixol acetate 5-10 mg/kg IM (peak effect 24 hr, duration 48-72 hr). Species variation in the sensitivity to this drug; profound tranquillisation and death have been seen in agile wallabies (N. agilis) and bridled nail-tailed wallabies (Onychogalea frenata) at these dose rates (T Portas pers. comm.). Side effects such as peripheral oedema and urine retention have been reported. See Chapter 9 for precautions on the use of neuroleptic drugs

• Trazodone 7-10 mg/kg PO bid, course duration up to several weeks. For cases where behaviours suggest stress/anxiety (e.g. transition to a new enclosure, during events where there is increased activity/noise adjacent an enclosure)

Anaesthesia

• *TZ 4-10 mg/kg IM, 1-3 mg/kg IV. Lower doses for habituated animals, higher for less tractable animals and western grey kangaroos (M. fuliginosus); 5 mg/kg for free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Roberts et al. 2010; T Portas pers. comm.); 4 mg/kg reliable in free-ranging common wallaroos (Osphranterrobustus) providing suitable plane of anaesthesia for physical examination and collaring with relatively smooth recoveries (usually within 90 min) (T Portas pers.

• TZ 0.5-1.0 mg/kg + med 0.03-0.04 mg/kg or dexmed 0.03-0.04 mg/kg IM for remote injection of managed red kangaroos (Osphranter rufus) (Holz 2014b); TZ + med at various dose rates unreliable and not recommended in eastern grey kangaroos (T Portas pers. comm.)

• TZ 5-8 mg/kg (lower doses for calm animals) + med 0.02-0.05 mg/kg IM for most managed macropod species, reversal atipam (5 x med dose) (M Campbell-Ward pers. comm.)

• TZ 3-4 mg/kg + acepromazine 0.3 mg/kg IM

• Ket 3-5 mg/kg + med 0.04-0.125 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam (4-5 ? med dose IM). Higher doses are generally recommended. Specific published doses include (all IM, reversal atipamazole at 5 ? med dose either IM alone or half IM and half IV): 5 mg/kg ket + 0.1 mg/kg med for docile red kangaroos and western grey kangaroos (Holz 2014b) and red-necked wallabies (Bouts et al. 2010; Bouts et al. 2011) - this combination at this dose failed to effectively immobilise more nervous species, such as eastern grey kangaroos or smaller macropods such as pademelons (Thylogale spp.) and parma wallabies (N. parma) (Holz 2014b); 5 mg/kg ket + 0.05 mg/kg med in red-necked wallabies (Watson et al. 2016); 4 mg/kg ket + 0.04 mg/kg med in eastern grey kangaroos (Pye and Booth 1998); 4.5 mg/kg ket + 0.08 mg/kg med in bridled nail-tailed wallabies (Boardman et al. 2014)

• *Ket 2-4 mg/kg + med 0.05 mg/kg + midaz 0.02-0.1 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.25 mg/kg IM (western grey and red kangaroos [Makrin- Dray et al. 2021])

• *Ket 2-6 mg/kg + med 0.06-0.1 mg/kg + but 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.3 mg/kg IM + 0.15 mg/kg IV + naltrexone 0.55 mg/kg IV. Very effective in red kangaroos. Smooth induction, good muscle relaxation, rapid recovery (L Vogelnest pers. comm.; Makrin-Dray et al. 2021). Ket 5 mg/kg + med 0.1 mg/kg + but 0.1 mg/kg, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM + naltrexone 2 ? but dose IV reliably used in swamp wallabies (Wallabia bicolor) (K Pillay pers.

• Xylazine 2 mg/kg + ket 15 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.4 mg/kg half IM, half IV (red-necked wallabies, Bouts et al. 2010)

• Ket 5.0 mg/kg + dexmed 0.05 mg/kg, reversal atipam 2.5 mg/kg half IM, half IV (red-necked wallabies, Bouts et al. 2010)

• But 0.5 mg/kg + azaperone 0.2 mg/kg + med 0.15 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.75 mg/kg IM, naltrexone 1 mg/kg IM (Watson etal. 2016). Only light plane of sedation achieved and is not currently recommended for chemical restraint of macropods without further studies

• Med 0.1 mg/kg + alfax 4 mg/kg IM (5-mL dart required), reversal atipam 0.5 mg/kg half IM, half IV (red-necked wallabies, Bouts etal. 2011)

• *Alfax 2-4 mg/kg IM, 1.5-3 mg/kg IV. IM only suitable for smaller species as volume prohibitive in larger species. Generally only achieves light plane of anaesthesia for short duration when used alone. Supplementation with inhalational agent or combination with other injectable drugs is required for deeper and longer duration

• Alfax 2.5 mg/kg + midaz 0.2 mg/kg IM. Light plane of anaesthesia in rufous bettong (Aepyprymnus rufescens) (G Tobias pers. comm.)

• Propofol 1 mg/kg IV as a supplement, CRI at 0.1 mg/kg per min for maintenance (Bauquier and Golder 2010)

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask in small tractable animals, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus)

Sedation

• Diaz 0.5-1 mg/kg IM, 0.5 mg/kg IV

• Trazodone 5 mg/kg PO bid. Reduce short-term anxiety during hospitalisation

Anaesthesia

• *Alfax 1.5-5 mg/kg IM, 1 mg/kg IV (3 mg/kg IM most commonly used). Smooth, rapid induction, good maintenance of vital signs, including peripheral and mucous membrane perfusion; short duration

• *Alfax 2.0 mg/kg + med 0.04 mg/kg IM. Field anaesthesia; smooth rapid induction, good maintenance of vital signs; significantly more rapid recovery when reversed with atipam 0.16 mg/kg compared to alfax used alone (Downey etal. 2020)

• Alfax 1.25 mg/kg + med 0.1 mg/kg IM (LAHM), reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM (T Hawkins pers.

• *Alfax 2 mg/kg + med 0.05 mg/kg IM (HALM) reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM (T Hawkins pers. comm.). Excellent field anaesthesia; smooth, rapid induction, good maintenance of vital signs; stable 40-50 min anaesthesia without need for supplementation in most cases; requires at least 1 hr for full recovery before release (L Vogelnest pers. comm.)

• TZ 5-10 mg/kg IM, 2.5 mg/kg IV. Poorer muscle relaxation, mild salivation and prolonged recovery

• TZ 3.5 mg/kg + med 0.055 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 2 mg IV (Lynch and Martin 2003)

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O2 (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Wombats

Sedation

• Diaz 0.5-1 mg/kg IM (1 mg/kg used for crating and air transport of northern hairy-nosed wombats [Lasiorhinus krefftii ], T Portas pers. comm.)

• Midaz 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM. 0.2 mg/kg provided light sedation in southern hairy-nosed wombat (L. Iatifrons) juveniles (G Tobias pers. comm.)

Anaesthesia

• *TZ 2-9 mg/kg. Effect and duration are dose-dependent (2.5-3 mg/kg in northern hairy-nosed wombats before isoflurane in O₂ maintenance [T Portas pers. comm.], 4 mg/kg in bare-nosed wombats [Vombatus ursinus], [B Bryant pers. comm.]). Induction is rapid and smooth, with good muscle relaxation at higher dose rates; paddling and continued jaw movements may be seen; recovery may be prolonged

• Ket 2 mg/kg + med 0.125 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 4 ? med dose IM

• *TZ 2-3 mg/kg + med 0.02-0.04 mg/kg IM in southern hairy-nosed (lower dose of med preferred as higher doses result in bradycardia, bradypnoea, apnoea) and bare-nosed wombats, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM

• *Ket 3 mg/kg + med 0.1 mg/kg + midaz 0.1 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose, zoo-housed bare-nosed wombat. Rapid, smooth induction (K Pillay pers. comm.)

• *Ket 5-6 mg/kg + med 0.02-0.03 mg/kg + midaz 0.2-0.25 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.15 mg/kg or 5 ? med dose IM, southern hairy­nosed wombat (G Tobias pers.

• *Alfax 3-5 mg/kg IM. Effect is dose-dependent; useful in juveniles; large volume required for adults; often poor efficacy; 3-4 mg/kg has been effective in southern hairy-nosed wombats (S Vitali pers. comm.)

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Dasyurids and numbats (Myrmecobius fasciatus)

Sedation

• Diaz 1-2 mg/kg IM

Anaesthesia (protocols listed for Tasmanian devils likely suitable for quolls and numbats)

• TZ 5-10 mg/kg IM. Variable relaxation, hypersalivation, constant limb and jaw movement, prolonged recovery

• *Ket 5 mg/kg + med 0.08 mg/kg + but 0.1 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.4 mg/kg IM Tasmanian devils (Sarcophilusharrisii) (J Weller pers. comm.)

• Ket 5 mg/kg + med 0.05 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 4 ? med dose IM in Tasmanian devils (R Booth pers. comm.)

• Med 0.05 mg/kg + midaz 0.5 mg/kg + but 0.25 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose + naltrexone 2 ? but dose IM in Tasmanian devils (S Alexander pers. comm.).

• Alfax 3-5 mg/kg IM. Tasmanian devils, variable efficacy, volume problematic with higher doses

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Possums and gliders

Sedation

• Diaz 0.5-1 mg/kg IM

• But 0.4-1 mg/kg SC or IM

Anaesthesia

• TZ 3-10 mg/kg IM, 1-3 mg/kg IV. Rapid, smooth induction, good muscle relaxation; however, tachycardia, ptyalism, respiratory depression, apnoea, muscle rigidity and prolonged recovery have been reported in several species and deaths have been reported in squirrel gliders (Petaurusnorfolcensis) (Holz 1992; Vogelnest 1999; Johnson and Hemsley 2008)

• Ket 1-3 mg/kg + med 0.02-0.1 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.05-0.4 mg/kg IV

• Ket 3 mg/kg + mid 0.2 mg/kg + but 0.2 mg/kg IM. Deep sedation to light anaesthesia (G Tobias pers. comm.)

• Alfax 8 mg/kg + med 0.12 mg/kg IM. Field anaesthesia; improved muscle relaxation compared with alfax alone; slightly quicker recovery with atipam reversal 0.48 mg/kg IM (W Boardman pers.

• *Alfax 2.5-12 mg/kg IM, 5 mg/kg IV. Rapid short-acting anaesthesia in possums

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Bandicoots and the greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis)

Sedation

• Diaz 0.5-1 mg/kg IM

• Midaz 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM

Anaesthesia

• Alfax 2-3 mg/kg IM. Moderate to deep sedation, light anaesthesia in greater bilbies (G Tobias pers. comm.)

• Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Bats

Sedation

• Diaz 0.5-2.0 mg/kg IM or IV

• Med 0.3-0.8 mg/kg IM

Anaesthesia

• Ket 10-20 mg/kg + xylazine 2-4 mg/kg IM (pteropodids), reversal atipam 0.02-0.06 mg/kg IM. Residual ket may result in struggling and flapping on recovery

• Ket 5-6 mg/kg + med 0.05-0.06 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose

• TZ 10-40 mg/kg IM. Rapid induction, wide safety margin, prolonged recovery with violent wing thrashing and extreme agitation. High doses for aggressive bats with injury or illness that necessitates euthanasia

• TZ 20 mg/kg sprayed into the mouth for unrestrained, aggressive bats if ABLV is suspected

• Alfax 5 mg/kg IV (NHMRC 2014)

• Propofol 8-10 mg/kg IV. For induction or maintenance in pteropodids; can be diluted 1:4 with sterile water by volume for accurate dosing in small individuals; rapid smooth induction and recovery; 5-15 min of anaesthesia, which can be maintained by continuous infusion or repeated boluses; safe; IV administration difficult if bat is excited or aggressive (J Barrett and A Olsson unpublished)

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube in larger species)

Rodents

Sedation

• But 0.1-0.2 mg/kg SC (before inhalation anaesthesia, R Johnson pers. comm.)

Anaesthesia

• Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction and maintenance via mask)

Dingo (Canis familiaris)

Sedation

• Drugs and dose rates used in domestic dogs are suitable. The use of neuroleptic agents other than zuclopenthixol has not been reported in dingoes. Acepromazine or diazepam may be useful to sedate a dingo sufficiently for intensive treatment

• Diaz 0.6-0.7 mg/kg PO used as optional pre-medication in zoo-housed dingoes given in a very small piece of meat 1-2 hr prior to induction (M Campbell-Ward pers. comm.)

• Trazodone/gabapentin. See Appendix 4

Anaesthesia

• Drugs and dose rates used in domestic dogs are suitable. Where dose rates are quoted as a range, preferable to choose the higher end rather than the lower to ensure adequate restraint, particularly in the field where bodyweights are estimated and animals are active or apprehensive. If prompt return to the pack is desirable, use of drugs or drug combinations that can be antagonised is an advantage (Hulst 2008)

• TZ 1.5-2 mg/kg IV, 8-10 mg/kg IM

• Ket 3-5 mg/kg + med 0.04-0.06 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM. Reliable level of chemical restraint for safe removal from trap, thorough physical examination and minimally invasive procedures (M Campbell-Ward pers. comm.)

• Med 0.03 mg/kg + but 0.4-0.7 mg/kg +/- TZ 1 mg/kg SC, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM. For anaesthetic induction (M Campbell-Ward pers. comm.)

• TZ 1-3 mg/kg + med 0.03-0.08 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 4 ? med dose. Used in other wild canid species and likely suitable for dingoes

• Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask in small tractable individuals, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Pinnipeds

Sedation

• Midaz 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM; 0.1 mg/kg IV, docile managed otariids

• Midaz 0.15-0.2 mg/kg IM moderate sedation; 0.4-0.5 mg/kg heavy sedation, phocids

• Midaz 0.2-0.3 mg/kg + but 0.2-0.4 mg/kg IM, managed fur seals: sedation sufficient for non-invasive procedures (K Bodley pers. comm.)

• Diaz 0.1-0.5 mg/kg IM or IV; 0.1-0.2 mg/kg PO

• Benzodiazepines antagonised with flumazenil 0.002-0.01 mg/kg IV or IM

Anaesthesia

• *TZ 1-2 mg/kg IM, fur seals; 1.2-1.5 mg/kg IM effectively immobilises free-ranging Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus)

• TZ 1.87 ± 0.18 mg/kg for females and 1.49 ± 0.23 mg/kg for males IM, free-ranging long-nosed fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri) (McKenzie et al. 2013)

• TZ 1.5-2 mg/kg IM, Australian sea lions (Neophoca cinerea) (O'Sullivan etal. 2012)

• TZ 0.54 mg /kg IV; 1 mg/kg IM, southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina)

• TZ 0.5-0.65 mg/kg IV, adult female Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii); starting dose of 0.5 mg/kg IV recommended for other age classes of Weddell seal and for other phocids (Wheatley et al. 2006)

• TZ 1.2-1.4 mg/kg IM, leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx), variable responses (Higgins et al. 2002)

• *TZ 0.8-1.0 mg/kg IM by dart, light anaesthesia, supplemented with ket IM or IV if required (total doses 0.4-2 mg/kg), leopard seals (Vogelnest etal. 2010)

• Ket 2 mg/kg + midaz 0.1 mg/kg IM, maintenance doses ket 0.5 mg/kg + midaz 0.025 mg/kg IV, Weddell seals (Mellish et al. 2010)

• Midaz 0.18 mg/kg + but 0.16 mg/kg IM, maintenance midaz 0.12-0.29 mg/kg IV, reversal naltrexone 0.05-0.12 mg/kg + flumazenil 0.003­0.01 mg/kg IV in leopard seals (Pussini and Goebel 2015)

• Med 0.07-0.1 mg/kg + ket 2 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam 0.35 mg/kg IM, fur seals

• *Med 0.013 mg/kg + midaz 0.25 mg/kg + but 0.33-0.4 mg/kg IM, reversal atipam (5 ? med dose), flumazenil 0.002 mg/kg and naltrexone 0.1 mg/kg IM, fur seals and Australian sea-lion

• *Med 0.015-0.2 mg/kg + midaz 0.06-0.1 mg/kg + but 0.15-0.2 mg/kg, reversal atipam 5 ? med dose IM + naltrexone 2 ? but dose IM, Australian fur seals (B Gardner pers. comm.)

• Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (induction via mask in juveniles or after sedation, maintenance via mask or endotracheal tube)

Cetaceans

Sedation

• Midaz 0.05-0.15 mg/kg IM, reversal flumazenil 0.002-0.005 mg/kg IM or IV

• Midaz 0.08-0.1 mg/kg IM as anaesthetic pre-med alone or in combination with pethidine 0.2-0.5 mg/kg IM given just before induction, reversal flumazenil 0.005 mg/kg IM or IV + naloxone 0.01 mg/kg IV (if pethidine used and may need to be repeated if sedation persists). If signs of respiratory depression or excitement, use naltrexone 0.05-0.1 mg/kg IM or IV to obtain 24 hr of opioid reversal (Bailey 2016; D Blyde pers. comm.)

• Midaz 0.075 mg/kg IM + but 0.05 mg/kg IM as anaesthetic pre-med (Tamura et al. 2017)

• Diaz 0.05-0.1 mg/kg IV, 0.1-0.2 mg/kg IM, 0.25-1 mg/kg PO, reversal flumazenil 0.002- 0.004 mg/kg IM or IV

• But 0.05-0.15 mg/kg, reversal naltrexone 0.01 mg/kg IM (Chittick et al. 2006)

• Midaz 0.1 mg/kg + but 0.1 mg/kg IM. For painful procedures (D Blyde pers. comm.)

• Diaz 0.6 mg/kg + 0.4 mg/kg but PO. Mild sedation (Martelli et al. 2016)

• Midaz 0.1 mg/kg IM + but 0.1 mg/kg IM delivered via a specially designed pole syringe produced an increased respiratory rate, increased swimming speed and a marked reduction in boat avoidance allowing improved disentanglement of north Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) (Moore et al. 2010)

Anaesthesia

• *Propofol 2-4 mg/kg slow IV (average dose in Baily (2016) 3.9 mg/kg). Dose can be reduced by giving midaz 0.08-0.1 mg/kg IM just before propofol or 0.05-0.08 mg/kg IV in combination with the propofol (Bailey 2016; D Blyde pers. comm.)

• Propofol 3.5-4.8 mg/kg slow IV after above pre-med (Rosenberg et al. 2017; Tamura et al. 2017)

• TZ 1-2 mg/kg IV, 2-2.5 mg/kg IM

• Med 0.04 mg/kg + ket 2 mg/kg, reversal atipam 0.2 mg/kg IM

• *Isoflurane or sevoflurane in O₂ (for maintenance via endotracheal tube)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Janine Barrett, David Blyde, Wayne Boardman, Kate Bodley, Benn Bryant, Robert Johnson, Annabelle Olsson, Timothy Portas, Brett Gardner, Gabi Tobias, Kresen Pillay, Rosie Booth, Sarah Alexander, Michelle Campbell-Ward and Jayne Weller for the information they provided and Wayne Boardman for proof reading.

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