References

Abrahamsen, E.J. (2013). Chemical restraint and injectable anesthesia of ruminants. Vet. Clin. Food Anim. 29: 209-227.

Anika, S.M. (1985). Diazepam and chlorpromazine stimulate feeding in dwarf goats.

Antognini, J.F. and Eisele, P.H. (1993). Anesthetic potency and cardiopulmonary effects of enflurane, halothane, and isoflurane in goats. Lab. Anim. Sci. 43: 607-610.

Arifah, A.K., Landoni, M.F., and Lees, P. (2003). Pharmacodynamics, chiral pharmacokinetics and PK-PD modelling of ketoprofen in the goat. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 26: 139-150.

Ashour, K., Awad, N.A.E., Abdelgayed, S.S. et al. (2021). Electroacupuncture anesthesia for laparotomy in goats. Open Vet. J. 11 (1): 52-60.

AVMA (2008). Literature review on the welfare implications of electroimmobilization. https://www.avma.org/sites/ default/files/resources/electroimmobilization_bgnd.pdf (accessed September 5, 2021).

AVMA (2020). AVMA guidelines for the euthanasia of animals: 2020 edition. https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/ Documents/euthanasia.pdf (accessed April 21, 2021).

Babalola, G.O. and Oke, B.O. (1983). Intravenous regional analgesia for surgery of the limbs in goats. Vet. Q. 5: 186-189.

Bischoff, K., Smith, M.C., and Stump, S. (2014). Treatment of Pieris ingestion in goats with intravenous lipid emulsion.

J. Med. Toxicol. 10: 411-414.

Boesch, J.M. and Campoy, L. (2017). Sedation, general anesthesia, and analgesia. In: Farm Animal Surgery, 2e (ed. S.L. Fubini and N.G. Ducharme), 60-80. St. Louis: MO, Elsevier.

Branson, K.R. and Gross, M.E. (1994). Propofol in veterinary medicine. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 204: 1888-1890.

Bryant, S.H. (1969). General anesthesia in the goat. Fed. Proc. 28: 1553-1556.

Burke, M.J., Soma, L.R., Boston, R.C. et al. (2017). Evaluation of the analgesic and pharmacokinetic properties of transdermally administered fentanyl in goats.

Bush, M. (1996). A technique for endotracheal intubation of nondomestic bovids and cervids. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 27: 378-381.

Carroll, G.L., Hartsfield, S.M., and Hambleton, R. (1997). Anesthetic effects of tiletamine-zolazepam, alone or in combination with butorphanol, in goats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 211: 593-597.

Carroll, G.L., Hooper, R.N., Slater, M.R. et al. (1998). Detomidine-butorphanol-propofol for carotid artery translocation and castration or ovariectomy in goats. Vet. Surg. 27: 75-82.

Carroll, G.L., Hooper, R.N., Boothe, D.M. et al. (1999). Pharmacokinetics of fentanyl after intravenous and transdermal administration in goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 60: 986-991.

Carroll, G.L., Hartsfield, S.M., Champney, T.H. et al. (2005). Effect of medetomidine and its antagonism with atipamezole on stress-related hormones, metabolites, physiologic responses, sedation, and mechanical threshold in goats. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 32: 147-157.

Celly, C.S., Atwal, O.S., McDonell, W.N., and Black,

W.D. (1999). Histopathologic alterations induced in the lungs of sheep by use of α₂-adrenergic receptor agonists. Am. J. Vet. Res. 60: 154-161.

Clark, T.P., Purohit, R.C., and Wilson, R.C. (1993). Evaluation of sedative and analgesic properties of detomidine in goats. Agri-Practice 14 (4): 29-33.

Clark, T.P., Purohit, R.C., and Wilson, R.C. (1995). Evaluation of tiletamine-zolazepam anesthesia in goats. Agri-Practice 16 (6): 24-27.

Clarke, K.W., Trim, C.M., and Hall, L.W. (2014). Veterinary Anaesthesia, 11e. St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.

Collins, S.L., Caldwell, M., Hecht, S., and Whitlock,

B.K. (2017). Comparison of penetrating and nonpenetrating captive bolt methods in horned goats.

Am. J. Vet. Res. 78: 151-157.

Conner, G.H., Coppock, R.W., and Beck, C.C. (1974). Laboratory use of CI-744, a cataleptoid anesthetic, in sheep. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin. 69: 479-482.

Covino, B.G. and Vassallo, H.G.

Craigmill, A.L., Rangel-Lugo, M., Damian, P., and Riviere, J.E. (1997). Extralabel use of tranquilizers and general anesthetics. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 211: 302-304.

Damian, P., Craigmill, A.L., and Riviere, J.E. (1997). Extralabel use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 211: 860-861.

Davis, L.E. and Westfall, B.A. (1972). Species differences in biotransformation and excretion of salicylate. Am. J. Vet. Res. 33: 1253-1262.

DeGraves, F.J., Anderson, K.L., and Aucoin, D.P. (1993). Pharmacokinetics of ibuprofen in lactating dairy goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 54: 434-437.

DeRossi, R., Junqueira, A.L., and Beretta, M.P. (2003). Analgesic and systemic effects of ketamine, xylazine, and lidocaine after subarachnoid administration in goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 64: 51-56.

Dew, T.L. (1988). Use of tolazoline hydrochloride to reverse multiple anesthetic episodes induced with xylazine hydrochloride and ketamine hydrochloride in white-tailed deer and goats. J. Zoo Anim. Med. 19 (1-2): 8-13.

Dhindsa, D.S., Hoversland, A.S., and Kluempke, R. (1970). Halothane semiclosed-circuit anesthesia in pygmy and large goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 31: 1897-1899.

Doherty, TJ., Pascoe, PJ., McDonell, W.N., and Monteith, G. (1986). Cardiopulmonary effects of xylazine and yohimbine in laterally recumbent sheep. Am. J. Vet. Res. 50: 517-521.

Doherty, TJ., Will, W.A., Rohrbach, B.W., and Geiser, D.R. (2004). Effect of morphine and flunixin meglumine on isoflurane minimum alveolar concentration in goats. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 31: 97-101.

Dzikiti, B.T., Stegmann, F.G., Dzikiti, L.N., and Hellebrekers, L.J. (2010). Total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) with propofol-fentanyl and propofol-midazolam combinations in spontaneously-breathing goats. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 37 (6): 519-525.

Edjtehadi, M. and Howard, B.R. (1978). The effect of thiopental sodium, methoxyflurane and halothane on the acid-base status of sheep.

Eness, P.G. (1987). Alcohol block using the caudal paravertebral procedure. Presented at the AASGP Regional Symposium, Des Moines, IA.

Eriksson, L. and Tuomisto, L. (1983). Effect of naloxone on the hypotensive action of clonidine in the conscious, normotensive goat. Acta Pharmacol. Toxicol. 52: 241-245.

Ewing, K.K. (1990). Anesthesia techniques in sheep and goats. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract. 6: 759-778.

Fetcher, A. (1983). Liver diseases of sheep and goats. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Large Anim. Pract. 5: 525-538.

Foex, P. and Prys-Roberts, C. (1972). Pulmonary haemodynamics and myocardial effects of Althesin (CT1341) in the goat. Postgrad. Med. J. 48: 24-31.

Frank, S.G. and Lalonde, D.H. (2012). How acidic is the lidocaine we are injecting, and how much bicarbonate should we add? Can. J. Plast. Surg. 20 (2): 71-73.

Gayas, M.A., Fazili, M.u.R., Aijaz, R. et al. (2020). Distal paravertebral nerve block in sheep undergoing laparohysterotomy: comparing the use of 1% and 2% lignocaine hydrochloride. Small Rumin. Res. 192: 106185.

Grandin, T. (1994). Euthanasia and slaughter of livestock.

J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 204: 1354-1360.

Gray, P.R. and McDonell, W.N. (1986a). Anesthesia in goats and sheep. Part I: Local analgesia. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 8: S33-S39.

Gray, P.R. and McDonell, W.N. (1986b). Anesthesia in goats and sheep. Part II: General anesthesia. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 8: S127-S135.

Gross, M.E. and Tranquilli, W.J. (1989). Use of α₂-adrenergic receptor antagonists. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 195: 378-381.

Hall, L.W., Clarke, K.W., and Trim, C.M. (2001). Veterinary Anaesthesia, 10e. London: W.B. Saunders.

Haskell, S.R.R., Gehring, R., Payne, M.A. et al. (2003). Update on FARAD food animal drug withholding recommendations. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 223: 1277-1278.

Hatch, R.C., Clark, J.D., Jemigan, A.D., and Tracy,

C.H. (1988). Searching for a safe, effective antagonist to Telazol overdose.

Heard, D.J., Nichols, W.W., Buss, D., and Kollias, G.V. (1996). Comparative cardiopulmonary effects of intramuscularly administered etorphine and carfentanil in goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 57: 87-96.

Hecker, J.F. (1974). Experimental Surgery on Small Ruminants. London: Butterworth.

Hendrickson, D.A., Kruse-Elliott, K.T., and Broadstone, R.V. (1996). A comparison of epidural saline, morphine, and bupivacaine for pain relief after abdominal surgery in goats. Vet. Surg. 25: 83-87.

Hodgkinson, O. and Dawson, L. (2007). Practical anaesthesia and analgesia in sheep, goats and calves. In Pract. 29: 596-603.

Ingvast-Larsson, C., Svartberg, K., Hydbring-Sandberg, E. et al. (2007). Clinical pharmacology of buprenorphine in healthy, lactating goats. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 30: 249-256.

Ingvast-Larsson, C., Hogberg, M., Mengistu, U. et al. (2010). Pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in adult goats and its analgesic effect in disbudded kids. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Therap. 34: 64-69.

Jansen, C.A.M., Lowe, K.C., and Nathanielsz, P.W. (1984). The effects of xylazine on uterine activity, fetal and maternal oxygenation, cardiovascular function, and fetal breathing. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 148: 386-390.

Janssens, L.A.A., Rogers, P.A.M., and Schoen, A.M. (1988). Acupuncture analgesia: a review. Vet. Rec. 122: 355-358.

Karademir, U., Erdogan, H., Boyacioglu, M. et al. (2016). Pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in adult goats: a comparative study of subcutaneous, oral and intravenous administration. N. Z. Vet. J. 64 (3): 165-168.

Kastner, S.B.R., Ohlerth, S., Pospischil, A., and Huhtinen, M.K. (2007). Dexmedetomidine-induced pulmonary alterations in sheep. Res. Vet. Sci. 83: 217-226.

Kellar, G.L. and Bauman, D.H. (1978). Ketamine and xylazine anesthesia in the goat. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin.

73: 443-444.

Kinjavdekar, P., Singh Amarpal, G.R., Aithal, H.P., and Pawde, A.M. (2000). Physiologic and biochemical effects of subarachnoidally administered xylazine and medetomidine in goats.

Kinjavdekar, P., Singh Amarpal, G.R., Aithal, H.P., and Pawde, A.M. (2007). Clinicophysiological effects of spinally administered ketamine and its combination with xylazine and medetomidine in healthy goats. Vet. Res. Commun. 31: 847-861.

Konigsson, K., Torneke, K., Engeland, I.V. et al. (2003). Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamic effects of flunixin after intravenous, intramuscular and oral administration in dairy goats. Acta Vet. Scand. 44: 153-159.

Kruse-Elliott, K.T., Riebold, T.W., and Swanson, C.R. (1987). Reversal of xylazine-ketamine anesthesia in goats. Vet. Surg. 16: 321-322. Abstract.

Kumar, A., Thurmon, J.C., and Hardenbrook, H.J. (1976). Clinical studies of ketamine HCl and xylazine HCl in domestic goats. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin. 71: 1707-1713.

Kumar, A., Thurmon, J.C., Nelson, D.R. et al. (1983). Response of goats to ketamine hydrochloride with and without premedication of atropine, acetylpromazine, diazepam, or xylazine. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin. 78: 955-960.

Kutter, A.P.N., Kastner, S.B.R., Bettschart-Wolfensberger, R., and Huhtinen, M. (2006). Cardiopulmonary effects of dexmedetomidine in goats and sheep anaesthetised with sevoflurane. Vet. Rec. 159: 624-629.

Kyles, A.E. (1998). Transdermal fentanyl. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 20: 721-726.

Larenza, M.P., Bergadano, A., Iff, I. et al. (2005). Comparison of the cardiopulmonary effects of anesthesia maintained by continuous infusion of ketamine and propofol with anesthesia maintained by inhalation of sevoflurane in goats undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Am. J. Vet. Res. 66: 2135-2141.

Lees, P., Giraudel, J., Landoni, M.F., and Toutain, P.L. (2004). PK-PD integration and PK-PD modelling of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: principles and applications in veterinary pharmacology. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 27: 491-502.

Lin, H.C. (2015). Comparative anesthesia and analgesia of ruminants and swine. In: Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones (ed.

K.A. Grimm, L.A. Lamont, W.J. Tranquilli, et al.), 743-753. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Linzell, J.L. (1964). Some observations on general and regional anaesthesia in goats. In: Small Animal Anaesthesia (ed. O. Graham-Jones), 163-175. New York: Macmillan.

Longair, J., Finley, G.G., Laniel, M.A. et al. (1991). Guidelines for euthanasia of domestic animals by firearms. Can. Vet. J. 32: 724-726.

Ludders, J.W. (1988). Anesthesia for the pregnant patient. In: Society for Theriogenology, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting, Orlando, FL, 36-54. Mathews, AL: Society for Theriogenology.

Matthews, J. (2016). Diseases of the Goat, 4e. Ames, IA: Wiley.

McEwen, M.-M. et al. (2000). Hepatic effects of halothane and isoflurane anesthesia in goats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 217: 1697-1700.

McKeating, F.J. and Pilsworth, R.C. (1984). “Disbudding” of kids. Vet. Rec. 115: 419.

Meyer, L.C.R., Hetem, R.S., Mitchell, D., and Fuller, F. (2015). Hypoxia following etorphine administration in goats (Capra hircus) results more from pulmonary hypertension than from hypoventilation. BMC Vet. Res. 11: 18. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12917-015-0337-5.

Mohamadnia, A.R., Hughes, G., and Clarke, K.W. (2008). Maintenance of anaesthesia in sheep with isoflurane, desflurane or sevoflurane. Vet. Rec. 163: 210-215.

Mohammad, F.K., Zangana, I.K., and Al-Kassim, N.A. (1991). Clinical observations in Shami goat kids sedated with medetomidine. Small Rumin. Res. 5: 149-153.

Mora, G., Messen, J., and Cox, J.F. (1993). Effect of yohimbine on xylazine-thiopental anaesthetized Creole goats. Small Rumin. Res. 11: 163-169.

Mpanduji, D.G., Bittegeko, S.B., Mgasa, M.N., and Batamuzi, E.K. (2000). Analgesic, behavioural and cardiopulmonary effects of epidurally injected medetomidine (Domitor®) in goats. J. Vet. Med. Ser. A 47: 65-72.

Mpanduji, D.G., Bittegeko, S.B.P., Batamuzi, E.K. et al. (2001). Comparison of the effects of atipamezole and tolazoline on analgesia, cardiopulmonary and rectal temperature changes induced by lumbosacral epidural injection of medetomidine in goats. Small Rumin. Res. 40: 117-122.

Nawaz, M. (1981). Pharmacokinetics and dosage of chlorpromazine in goats. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 4: 157-163.

Ndeereh, D.R., Mbithi, P.M.F., and Kihurani, D.O. (2001). The reversal of xylazine hydrochloride by yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in goats. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 72: 64-67.

Nelson, D.R., Ott, R.S., Benson, G.J., and Thurmon,

J.C. (1979). Spinal analgesia and sedation of goats with lignocaine and xylazine. Vet. Rec. 105: 278-280.

O'Brien, T.D., Raffe, M.R., Cox, V.S. et al. (1986). Hepatic necrosis following halothane anesthesia in goats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 189: 1591-1595.

Oliveira, A.R., Araujo, M.A., Jardim, P.H. et al. (2016). Comparison of lidocaine, levobupivacaine or ropivacaine for distal paravertebral thoracolumbar anesthesia in ewes. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 43 (6): 670-674.

Otero, P.E. and Campoy, L. (2013). Epidural and spinal anesthesia. In: Small Animal Regional Anesthesia and Analgesia (ed. L. Campoy and M.R. Read), 227-259. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Pablo, L.S. (1993). Epidural morphine in goats after hindlimb orthopedic surgery. Vet. Surg. 22: 307-310.

Pablo, L.S., Bailey, J.E., and Ko, J.C.H. (1997). Median effective dose of propofol required for induction of anesthesia in goats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 211: 86-88.

Palmon, S.C., Lloyd, A.T., and Kirsch, J.R. (1998). The effect of needle gauge and lidocaine pH on pain during intradermal injection. Anesth. Analg. 86: 379-381.

Pieterse, M.C. and van Dieten, J.S.M.M. (1995). The dehorning of goats and kids. Tijdschrift. Diergeneeskd. 120: 36-38.

Plummer, PJ., Shearer, J.K., Kleinhenz, K.E., and Shearer,

L. C. (2018). Determination of anatomic landmarks for optimal placement in captive-bolt euthanasia of goats. Am. J. Vet. Res. 79: 276-281.

Raekallio, M., Hackzell, M., and Eriksson, L. (1994). Influence of medetomidine on acid-base balance and urine excretion in goats. Acta Vet. Scand. 35: 283-288.

Regenstein, J.M. (2009). Religious and non-religious slaughter. Presentation at RMC, June 23. http://www. meatscience.org/docs/default-source/publications- resources/rmc/2009/amsa-rmc-2009-joe-regenstein-(1). pdf?sfvrsn=0 (accessed February 21, 2021).

Reid, J., Nolan, A.M., and Welsh, E. (1993). Propofol as an induction agent in the goat: a pharmacokinetic study. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 16: 488-493.

Riebold, T.W. (2015). Ruminants. In: Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones (ed. K.A. Grimm, L.A. Lamont, W.J. Tranquilli, et al.), 912-927. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Riese, R.L. (1987). Epidural and spinal anesthesia in sheep and goats. Presented at AASGP Regional Symposium, Des Moines, IA.

Schwesig, K.-P. (1986). Die sakrokokzygeale Extraduralanasthesie in der Therapie und Prophylaxe des Prolapsus vaginae sive uteri bei Schafmuttern. Thesis, University of Hanover, Germany.

Scott, P.R. and Gessert, M.E. (1997). Evaluation of extradural xylazine injection for caesarean operation in ovine dystocia cases. Vet. J. 154: 63-67.

Scott, P.R. (2000). Extradural analgesia for field surgery in sheep. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 22: S68-S75.

Seddighi, R. and Doherty, TJ. (2016). Field sedation and anesthesia of ruminants. Vet. Clin. Food Anim. 32: 553-570.

Sheeman, J.M., Carter, W., Tobin, T., and Ramsay, E.C. (1997). Immobilization of domestic goats (Capra hircus) using orally administered carfentanil citrate and detomidine hydrochloride. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 28: 158-165.

Shukla, M., Singh, G., Sindhura, B.G. et al. (2007). Comparative plasma pharmacokinetics of meloxicam in sheep and goats following intravenous administration. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 145: 528-532.

Singh, K., Kinjavdekar, P., Amarpal et al. (2007). Effects of epidural ketamine-xylazine combination on the clinicophysiological and haematobiochemical parameters of uraemic and healthy goats. Vet. Res. Commun. 31: 133-142.

Smith, G.W., Davis, J.L., Tell, L.A. et al. (2008). Extralabel use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in cattle. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 232: 697-701.

Snyder, J.H. (2007). Anesthesia and analgesia. Minor surgeries in small ruminants. AABP Proc. 40: 183-187.

Stegmann, G.F. (1998). Observations on the use of midazolam for sedation, and induction of anaesthesia with midazolam in combination with ketamine in the goat. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 69: 89-92.

Stock, M.L., Coetzee, J.F., KuKanich, B., and Smith, B.I. (2013). Pharmacokinetics of intravenously and orally administered meloxicam in sheep. Am. J. Vet. Res. 74 (5): 779-783.

Taylor, P.M. (1991). Anaesthesia in sheep and goats. In Pract. 13: 31-36.

Thurmon, J.C. (1986). Injectable anesthetic agents and techniques in ruminants and swine. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract. 2: 567-591.

Tillman, P.C. and Brooks, D.L. (1983). A rapid method for devocalizing goats. Lab. Anim. Sci. 33: 98-100.

Tiwari, S.K., Kumar, A., and Papikh, P.V. (1997). Effects of medetomidine with and without ketamine, and its reversal with atipamezole in goats. Indian J. Anim. Sci. 67: 849-851.

Trim, C.M. (1987). Special anesthesia considerations in the ruminant. In: Principles and Practice of Veterinary Anesthesia (ed. C.E. Short), 285-300. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins.

Trim, C.M. (1989). Epidural analgesia with 0.75% bupivacaine for laparotomy in goats. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 194: 1292-1296.

Valverde, A. and Sinclair, M. (2015). Ruminant and swine local anesthetic and analgesic techniques. In: Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones (ed. K.A. Grimm, L.A. Lamont, W.J. Tranquilli, et al.), 941-959. Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Venkatachalam, D., Chambers, P., Kongara, K., and Singh,

P. (2018). Toxicity and pharmacokinetic studies of lidocaine and its active metabolite, monoethylglycinexylidide, in goat kids. Animals 8: 142. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8080142.

Vijaykumar, D.S. and Ramakrishna, O. (1983). Electroanesthesia for fracture repair in a pregnant doe. Vet. Med. Small Anim. Clin. 78: 1111-1112.

Wagner, A.E. and Brodbelt, D.C. (1997). Arterial blood pressure monitoring in anesthetized animals. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 210: 1279-1285.

Waterman, A.E. (1988). Use of propofol in sheep. Vet. Rec. 122: 26.

Williams, B.M. (1985). Disbudding kids. Vet. Rec. 116: 480.