The Actions, Secretions, and Surface Molecule Expression of Immune Cells Play an Important Role in Regulation of the Body's Immune Response

Once the antigen is cleared by antibodies or T cells, it is imperative that the immune response return to its normal state to maintain homeostasis. Failure to downregulate the heightened immune reactivity will likely result in a number of pathological conditions, including autoimmunity, lymphoid tumors, allergies, amyloidosis, and abortion.

The body has multiple mechanisms to downregulate the immune system. Immune cells themselves secrete various biomolecules that downregulate immune activity. These include prostaglandin E∣ (PGE∣∣, which increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) to suppress physiological activity of cells. Immune cells also secrete cytokines, such as transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and interleukin-10 (IL-IO), which downregulate immune responses. The importance of these cytokines in downregulating immune responses is evident in the immune- mediated inflammation that results in mice with a deleted TGF-β gene. Antibodies themselves can downregulate their immune responses by binding to Fc receptors on B cells. This cross-ligation of Fc receptors results in delivery of inhibitory signals. Immune responses are antigen driven, so clearing of antigen by immune mechanisms leads to a decrease in antigenic load and thus diminishes the antigen-induced activation of lymphocytes.

As mentioned earlier, activation of T cells requires at least two signals. The second signal is altered by the increased secretion of molecules or the T cells that deliver a negative signal to dampen T-cell activation. Important in this regard is the recent discovery of T-regulatory cells (Treg), a small percentage of T cells (of fats, 356-359» 357-359f membranous-phase digestion and, 345-346,345f metabolism during, 393-399, 393f amino acids in, 395-398. 395t, 396-398f fatty acids in, 393-395, 394f glucose in, 393-394 insulin and, 393, 396-397, 397f, 398 tissue nutrient storage and, 398-399, 398f of proteins, in neonates, 360 transport systems in, 347-349, 347-349f of volatile fatty acids, 380-382,38If, 382f, 386 of water, in intestines, 349, 352-353,354-355, 355f

AcceIerationZdeceleration, detection of, 120-123 Acclimatization, 608

to cold climates, 642,647

to hot climates, 644

Accommodation, 147, I47f

ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme), 532,616 Acetate (acetic acid), 368,369f

absorption of, 382 chemical structure of, 370f Acetoacetate, 392f Acetone, 392f Acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA), 393-394, 394f ketone body formation and, 405

Acetylcholine

as autonomic neurotransmitter, 139, 139f

in bronchoconstriction, 573, 573f

in cardiac regulation, 202-203, 2O2f, 205

Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; t, tables; b, boxes.

Acetylcholine—cont’d

in cardiovascular regulation, 278t, 279

in catecholamine release, 446

as circulating hormone, 139, 140

gastric secretion and, 331

as gut neurocrine, 301

inactivation of, 77, 78f, 140

in neuromuscular transmission, 76-77, 76f pancreatic secretion and, 332

receptors for. Stv Cholinergic receptors Acetylcholinesterase, 77, 140 Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, for myasthenia gravis, 79

Acid, definition of, 628

Acid-base balance

clinical terminology of, 632 disturbances of, 631-635. See also Acidosis;

Alkalosis

compensatory adjustments for. 633-634 diagnosis of, 634, 634f

overview of, 556-557

renal regulation of, 556-562, 630,631

acid excretion and, 557, 557f, 559-560, 560f ammonium generalion/excretion and, 557-559, 557f

bicarbonate and, 557, 557f, 559, 561,56If metabolic adkalosis and, 562 respiratory acidosis and, 562 respiratory system and, 556-557,630-631, 633-634

terminology for, 635

Acidosis

collecting duct response to, 560f

definition of, 628

metabolic, 633,633f, 635-637, 637f ammonia excretion during, 559 bone in compensation for, 556 hypoadrenocorticism and, 546 ventilatory regulation and, 607,607f

respiratory, 632,632f, 635,636f chronic, with renal compensation, 562 as respiratory stimulant, 606,607,607f

Acinar gland, 328

Acquired immunity, 661-669

antibody response in, 665-668,666f, 667f overview of, 662-663

regulation of, 668-669

T cells and, 663-665,664f, 665f

Acromegaly, 425-426

Acrosome, 521,52If

Acrosome reaction, 493

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). Stv Corticotropin

Actin. 6-7, 7f, 82, 195

Action potential, 61,67

cardiac

in contractile sequence, 194

duration of, 198-199, I98f, 201

generation of, 196, 196f

propagation of, 196-198, 197f

reentrant, 209

slow vs. fast, 202

in gastrointestinal smooth muscle, 313-314, 313f initiation and propagation of, 69-71,70-72f of Sarcolemma, 83-84

Activation caspases, 47

Activation range, of voltage-gated channels, 16 Active hyperemia, 268, 269f, 293

Active transport, 11, 13-16, 13-I5f, 181

in enterocytes, 347-348,347f, 348f

Active zone of presynaptic membrane, 76 Actomyosin, 7-8, 7f

Adaptive relaxation, of stomach, 316

Addison’s disease.

Stv Hypoadrenocorticism Adenohypophysis

embryonic development of, 419,419f hormones of, 422-423,422f, 422t. See also names

of specific hormones, t^,.g., Prolactin hypothalamic releasing hormones and, 423-426,

424t

in reproductive regulation, 469-470, 469f, 522f, 523

∕∖denosine diphosphate I Al)∣^,), in muscle

contraction, 7

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

as gut neurocrine, 301

microbial production of, 368-369, 369f

in muscle contraction, 5,7-8

in neuronal functioning, 68 Adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase), 7. See 587-588 gas exchange in, 181-182, 182f, 588-589, 588f, 589f

and systemic arterial gas content, 590-591,

591 f

Alveoli (lung)—cont’d septum of, 579, 579f surfactant in, 571, 57If, 624

Alveoli (mammary gland) anatomy of, 503, 5O3f milk constituent synthesis by, 508, 509f myoepithelial cells of, 509, 509f

Amacrinecells, 148, 148f

Amine hormones, 412

Amine neurotransmitters, 78b

Amino acid neurotransmitters, 78b

Amino acids. See also names Ofspecificamino acids branched-chain, 371,395,401-402.40If, 402f classification of, 395, 395t digestive production of, 346, 346f in fermentative digestion, 371 as fuel, 392

keto-analogues of, 395, 395f metabolism of, 395-398,396-398f, 401-402,401f, 402f

mobilization of, from muscle, 401-402,40If tissue uptake of, 398, 398f transport amino acids, 395 transport of, 14, I4f

Ammonia

detoxification of, 402 fermentative production of, 371 metabolism of, 373-374 renal excretion of, 557-559, 558f, 631

Ammoniagenesis, renal, 557-558, 558f

Ampulla, 120, I2θf, I23f

Cx-Amylase, 343-344

Amylopectin, digestion of, 343-344 Amylose, digestion of, 343-344 Anabolic steroids, 524, 525

Anaerobic exercise, 608

Anal sphincter, 322

Anamncstic immune response, 666 Anchorage dependence of growth, 38 Androgen insensitivity, 473 Androgen binding protein, 523 Androgens. See also Testosterone anabolic steroids, 524 biosynthesis of, 4l4f

Anemia

cardiac output and, 189-190 and oxygen capacity, 596f, 597 parasitism and, 190,600-601 Anesthesia

hypoventilation and, 609 hypoxemia during, 593 overdose of, cardiovascular complications of, 180 Anesthetics, local, for arrhythmias, 209 Anestrus, 488

Aneuploidy, 35

Angiogenesis inhibitors, 54

Angiogenesis, in tumor growth, 53 Angiogenic growth factors, 53-54 Angiotensin.

See also Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

pulmonary metabolism of, 616

Angiotensin 1,443, 532

Angiotensin II, 443, 533, 545 Angiotensin-Converting enzyme (ACE), 532,616 Angiotensinogen, 443

Anion gap, 453,635

ANR SeeAtriaI natriuretic peptide (ANP)

ANS. SeeAutonomic nervous system (ANS) Anteriorchamber, 146

Antiarrhythmic drugs, 206, 207, 209-210 Antibodies

antigen exposure and, 666-667, 666f

classes of, 667

colostral, 506-507 neonatal absorption of, 360 structure of, 666-667,666f, 667f

Anticoagulants, 187

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin), 419-422 antidiuretic mechanism of, 420f, 421

in blood volume restoration, 292

c AM P as second messenger for, 25,27 deficiency of, 421-422, 553-554 pressor effect of, 421

and renal sodium transport, 545

and reticular groove closure, 383 secretion of, 420-421,420f control of, 421 -422,421 f

volume receptor reflex activation of, 282

water balance and, 552-553,552f, 553f

Antigenic epitopes, 653

Antigenicity, 654

Antigen-presenting cells (APCs), 658-659,662, 663-664,665,668

Antigens, 652-655,653f

antibody response to, 666-667,666f, 668. See also Acquired immunity

gastrointestinal monitoring of, 307-308

Antigravity muscle control. See Postural muscle activity

Antiperistalsis, in colon, 321

Antiporters, 14,348

Antithyroglobulin autoantibody test, 436 Antral follicle, 476

Antrum, 317

Aorta, blood pressures in, 184, 242-243, 246-247 Aortic body, 606

Aortic depressor nerve, 280

Aortic IncompetenceZinsufficiency, 235

Aortic regurgitation, 235, 238, 252

Aortic stenosis, 237

APCs. See Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) Apocrine glands, 644

Apoproteins, surfactant, 571

Apoptosis

cancer and, 34,47-48

extrinsic vs. intrinsic pathways of, 47,47f vs. necrosis, 45-46,46f

Aquaporins, 15, 553

Aqueous humor, 146, 152

Arachidonic acid, 496

Arachnoid, 63

Arachnoid villi, 157, I57f

Archicerebellum. See Vestibulocerebellum

Arginine vasopressin.

See Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin)

Arrhythmias. See Cardiac arrhythmias

Arterial baroreceptor reflex, 277, 280-282, 280f, 281f

in blood pressure maintenance, after hemorrhage, 290-291

in defense-alarm reaction, 283

in exercise initiation, 293

Arterial baroreceptor reflex—coin'd

in heart failure compensation, 287

synergy with defense-alarm reaction, 283

Arterial baroreceptors, 280,280f, 606-607

Arterial blood gas measurement, 634,6341

Arterial blood pressure exercise and. 247,248f pulmonary, 185, 247 pulsatile nature of, 249-250,249f systemic, 184, 242-244, 243f, 246-247

Arterial blood, systemic

gas tensions in, in gas exchange evaluation. 592 gaseous composition of, 590-591, 591f

Arterial catheterization, 250

Arteries

general layout of. 183-184. I83f pulmonary

blood pressure in, 185,247

vasoconstriction of, 581-582, 582t stiffening of, 252 walls of, 255-256,256f

Arterioles

autonomic control of, 14It, 277, 278t. 279 blood flow regulation in, 267-268. See also Vascular resistance

in kidney, 533

control of blood flow by, 243, 245-246, 245f, 246f pulmonary, 578-579

smooth muscle of, 88

walls of, 255-256,256f

Arteriovenous anastomoses, in heat dissipation, 642.643f

Arteriovenous fistulae, 234

Ascites, 223

Asthma. 249

Asynergia, cerebellar disease and. 133

Ataxia, cerebellar disease and, 133

Atclectasis, 572, 582, 592

ATR See Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) ATPase, 7. See also Na^,,K*-ATPase pump Atria

action potential in, 201 contraction of. 194 depolarization of, on ECG, 215-216,216f left, pressure in, 580

Atrial fibrillation, 208, 222,600-601

Atrial flutter, 207-208

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), 444, 534 and renal sodium transport, 545

Atrial systole, 227-228

Atrial tachycardia, 207-208 paroxysmal, 223-224, 224f, 232

Atrial volume receptor reflex, 277, 282-28J, 282f in blod pressure maintenance, afteι hemorrhage, 290-291

Atrioventricular bundle, 196-198, 196f

Atrioventricular node, 196-198, 196f, 197f auxiliary pacemaker function of, 203-204, 2O3f electrical characteristics of, 204.

2O4t

Atrioventricular node block, 206-207, 210-211,221. 222f

Atrioventricular valves, 227,233t

Atrophy, in lower motor neuron disease, 103 Auditory cortex, 174

Auditory pathways, 174

Auditory system, 170-174,170-173f. Seeaiso Ear /Xuerbach plexus. See Myenteric plexus Auscultation, cardiac, 234 Autoantigens. 653, 653f, 654 Autocrine effectors, 411

Autoimmune disease, 668-669

Autonomic nervous system (ANS), 136-143 cardiac regulation by, 202-206,202f, 2O3f, 204t, 232-233

cardiovascular regulation by, 277-280,278t central control of, 142-143, 143f functions of, 61, 136

gastrointestinal regulation by, 303-304,303f, 304f homeostatic reflexes of, 140, 142

and insulin/glucagon secretion, 456,457f

neurotransmitters in, 139-140,139f, 143

organ response to, 140, I41-I42t parasympathetic division. See Parasympathetic nervous system

preganglionic/postganglionic neurons in, 137, 137f, 138f

smooth muscle innervation by, 88, 136-137, 137b. 143

pulmonary artery, 581-582, 581 f

subdivisionsof, 137-139, I38f, 140

sympathetic division. See Sympathetic nervous system

Autonomic reflexes. 140. 142

Autoregulation of blood flow, 269-270,270f

in kidney, 533

Avian species. See Birds

Axial muscles, 108

Axon, 61,67

afferent vs. efferent, 61

Axoplasmic transport, 67

Azotemia, prerenal, hypoadrenocorticism and,

546

B cells, 662, 662f, 663, 667-668

B lymphocytes. See B cells

Bacteremia, 180

Bacteria

antigenic structures of, 653-654,653f and fermentative digestion, 364-388,366b Balance

cerebellum and, 131

vestibular system and, 119

Baroreceptors. See also Arterial baroreceptor reflex arterial, 280, 280f, 606-607

Basal ganglia

function of, 63

in modulation of movement, 116-117

Basal metabolic rate (BMI), 640,641,642

animal size and, 566

thyroid hormones and, 432-433

Base, definition of, 628

Base excess/base deficit, 632

Basilar membrane, 171-172, I73f, 174

B-cell antigen receptor, 667-668

Bcl family of proteins, in intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, 48

Behavior, sexual. See Sexual behavior

Behavioral responses to heat stress, 647

Beta blockers. See β Adrenergic antagonists

Beta receptors. See β Adrenergic receptors Bevacizumab, 54

Bicarbonate

as buffer, 628-629. See also Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

in carbon dioxide transport, 599 gastric acid production and, 331 intestinal absorption of, 351-352,352f, 353t in pancreatic secretions, 332 renal excretion of, 561,561 f renal reabsorption of, 540-541,540f, 559,631 as renal tubular buffer, 557 standard bicarbonate, 635

Bilateral heart failure, 286

Bile

composition of, 334, 334f secretion of, 334-335, 335f

Bile acids, 334, 334f, 335, 356, 357f

Bile duct, 333,333f

Bile ductules, 333, 333f

Bile pigments, 334

Bilirubin, production of, 334 Bipolar cells, 147, 148f

Birds

gastrointestinal system of, 323-324, 323f glomerular filtration in, 534, 535 heat dissipation in, 645

immune system of, 663

renal anatomy of, 530, 549

renal portal circulation of, 540 uric acid excretion in, 542

Birth, physiological adjustments at, 498

Blood. See also Blood cells; Plasma

buffers in, 629-630,629f, 630f

clotting of, 187, 188

Componentsof, 187-188, I87f, 187t, 188t, 190f gas transport in. See Carbon dioxide transport;

Hemoglobin; Oxygen transport hormone transport by, 411.415 oxygen capacity of, 596f, 597 proteins in. See Plasma proteins substances transported by, 180 viscosity of, 189, 189f

Blood cell count, 188, 188t

Blood cells, 188. See also Erythrocytes; Leukocytes Bkxxi flow. See also Circulation; Vascular

resistance

arterioles in regulation of, 243, 245-246, 245f. 246f

autoregulation of, 269-270, 270f circulatory scheme of, 183-184, 183f determinants of, 247, 248f, 267 in fetal circulation, 622-623

intrinsic and extrinsic control mechanisms of, 267-268,276

mechanical compression and, 271-273, 271 f, 272f

metabolic control of, 267, 268-269, 268t, 269f, 292-293

and autoregulation, 270, 270f

to muscle, during exercise, 247, 248f, 258 organ distribution of, 247, 277-278 paracrines and, 267, 268t, 271 perfusion pressure and, 247,248f, 267 precapillary sphincter in regulation of, 256 in pulmonary circulation, 580, 580f renal, 532-534,533f

Blood gas measurement, arterial, 634,634t

Blood pressure

arterial baroreceptor reflex and, 277, 280-282, 280f,281f

in defense-alarm reaction, 283

atrial volume receptor reflex and, 277,282-283, 282f

autonomic control of, 142,277-279, 278t compensatory adjustments of, 281-282 and glomerular filtration rate, 532-534 maintenance after hemorrhage, 290-291, 290f measurement of, 185,250

neurohumoral regulation of, 276-277 pulmonary, 185,247, 580

systemic, 184, 242-244, 243f, 246-247

Blood vessels. See also Arteries; Arterioles;

Capillaries: Veins; entries beginning with Vascular

compliance of, 243-244,244f, 255-256 mechanical compression of, 271-273,27If, 272f perfusion vs. transmural pressure in, 181,18If placental, 621,621 f

of pulmonary circulation, 578-580, 579f resistance of, 244-246, 245f

retinal, 147

systemic blood pressures and, 242-244, 243f and tumor growth, 52-54

types of, in systemic circulation, 185-186, 185t, I86f

walls of, 255-256, 256f

Blood viscosity, hematocrit and, 189» 189f

Blood volume

atrial volume receptor reflex and, 277, 282-283, 282f

distribution of. 185, 185t

and glomerular filtration rate. 534

increased, in heart failure, 288-289 neurohumoral regulation of, 276-277 restoration of, after hemorrhage. 291-292,29If, 292f

venous system as reservoir of, 244 Blood-brain barrier, 154, 158-159, 158f, 257,607, 607f

Blotxlworm infestation, 179, 191

BMl. See Basal metabolic rate (BMI)

Body fluids, in defenses, 655

Body temperature. SefTemperature

Body weight, metabolic rate and, 641,641 f

Bone

in calcium homeostasis, 459,459f

in chronic metabolic acidosis compensation, 556

Bone marrow, lymphopoiesis in, 662f, 663 Bonylabyrinth, 120, 171

Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), 134

Bowman's capsule, 530, 530f, 532f

Bowman’s space, 530, 530f

Brachycephalic syndrome, 592-593 Bradyarrhythmias. 221,22If, 222f

Bradycardia, 206

Bradykinin

pulmonary metabolism of, 616

in vascular resistance regulation, 271

Brain. See also Brainstem; Cerebellum; Cerebral cortex

anatomic regions of, 61-62,62f, 63

auditory pathways of, 174

Brain—con t^,d

in autonomic regulation, 142-143, 143f

blood flow autoregulation in, 269-270,270f respiratory regulation by, 604-605,604f, 607-608, 607f

temperature regulation in, 642-643,643f ventricles of

anatomy of, 155, 155f

and CSF production, 156

relationship to CSF and meninges, 155f

Brain tumor-induced seizures, 167

Brainstem, 62,62f

function of, 63

motor pathways of

descending, 108-111, 109f

lateral-medial organization of, 109

respiratory regulation by, 604f, 605,607

reticular nuclei of, 110

Brainstem auditory-evoked responses (BSAER), 166, I66f

Branched-chain amino acids, 371,395,401-402, 401f,402f

BRCAl, 43

Breathing, initiation of, 625

Brisket disease, 582-583, 582f, 584

Bronchi, 572. See also Tracheobronchial tree

Bronchial artery, 583

Bronchial circulation, 583

Bronchial glands, 613,613f

Bronchial smooth muscle, and air flow resistance, 572-573, 573f

Bronchioles, 572. See also Tracheobronchial tree

Bronchoconstriction, 572-573

Bronehodilation, 573

Bronchoesophageal artery, 583

Bronchovascular bundle, 579, 579f

Brown fat, 642,647

Bruce effect. 489-490

Brush border

Ofintestinal mucosa, 339

of proximal renal tubule epithelium, 538,538f, 539f

BSAER (brainstem auditory-evoked responses), 166, I66f

Buffer base, 632

Buffers

acid-base balance and, 556,628-629

in blood, 629-630.629f, 630f

definition of, 628

intracellular, 631

Bulbourethral glands, 519

Bulk flow

in Cardiovascularsystem, 181, 182f

of water, in capillaries, 258-262

Bundle of His, 196

Burns, plasma loss in, 263

Bursa of Fabricius, 663

Butyrate (butyric acid). 368, 369f

absorption of, 382

chemical structure of, 370f

BVDV (bovine viral diarrhea virus), 134

C cell, of thyroid gland, 430

C fibers, 605

Cachexia, 52

Calcitonin, 430

in calcium/phosphorus homeostasis, 460-461, 461f

and renal calcium reabsorption, 546

Calcium

in acetylcholine release, 77

in cardiac muscle contraction, 88

disorders of. See Hypercalcemia; Hypocalcemia distribution of, in body, 458-459

in excitation-contraction coupling, 8

in G-protein-coupled receptor signaling, 29-30 intestinal absorption of, 458,461-462,462f physiologic role of, 458

regulation of, 458-463

body pools of and, 458-459,459f

calcitonin and, 460-461,46If parathyroid hormone and, 459-460,460f, 46If vitamin I) and, 461-463,461 f, 462f

renal reabsorption of, 541,543, 543f, 545-546

as second messenger, 24-25, 24f, 26f

in skeletal muscle contraction, 83-84,85f

in smooth muscle contraction, 88

Calcium channel blockers, 88

for arrhythmias, 209

Calcium ion channels

in cardiac muscle, 88, 198-200, 202, 205

in skeletal muscle, 83-84,85f

Calf

BVDV cerebellar damage in, 134

enterotoxic diarrhea in, 362

rumen development in, 382-383

Calmodulin, 25, 26f, 29-30

Calorigenic effect, 432

cAMP. See Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

cAMP-dependent protein kinase, 28 Canaliculi, of liver, 333, 333f

Cancer, 34-56. See also names of specific tumors,

e.g., Retinoblastoma

apoptosis and, 34,45-48,46-47f

cell cycle regulation and, 34, 35-39,37-38f cellular life span determinants, 48-49 genetic dysfunction and, 35-36, 36f growth factor pathway in, 34, 39-40,40f of mammary gland, 514

MAP kinase pathway and, 40,40f, 41 -43,42f origin, spread, and growth of, 35,49-54, 50-5If ras proto-oncogene and, 41 treatment of, 35, 54-55

tumor suppressors and, 34,43-45,44-45f

Capacitation of sperm, 493

Capillaries

absorption of waler and nutrients into, 354-355, 355f

alveolar, gas exchange in, 181,588, 589f and systemic arterial gas content, 590-591,

591 f

blood How in, 186, 186f, 243

of brain

and blood-brain barrier, 158-159

and oxygen delivery, 182-183

development of, in cancers, 52-54 diffusion in, 181-183, I82f, 256-259, 256f, 257f fenestrated, 256f, 257

glomerular, 530-531,53If, 532f

peritubular, 539,539f

Capillaries—con Cd

pulmonary, 579, 579f, 614-615,615f

walls of, 255-256,256f

water exchange in, 12-13,258-262

Capillary pores, 256f, 257

Capillary recruitment, 590

Capsid, as antigen, 654

Capsule, bacterial, 654

Carbamino compounds, 188, 599

Carbohydrates

absorption of, 349

classes of, 342-343

in colostrum, 507

dietary

feline response to, 455

and insulin/glucagon secretion, 396-397, 397f,

451,456

types of, 343, 343f

digestion of, 342-344, 343f, 346,346f

fermentative digestion of, 368, 370b, 372-373 in hindgut, 383

hepatic synthesis of, from amino acids, 396-397, 397f

metabolism of, 393, 399-401, 400f, 403-404, 404f

catecholamines and, 446-448,447f

glucagon and, 455-456, 456f glucocorticoids and, 439-440 heat produced by, 64It insulin and, 450-452,450f, 450t, 45If thyroid hormones and, 432-433

of plant cell walls, 368

Carbon dioxide

alveolar exchange of, 587-588

diffusion of, 258, 589

equilibrium curves for, 599, 599f

increased levels of, 591

as respiratory stimulant, 606

production of, 566

tissue levels of, 589-590

total, 635

transport of. See Carbon dioxide transport Carbon dioxide tension, 587t

alveolar, 588

and carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system, 629,630-631.631 f

in gas exchange evaluation, 592

and hemoglobin oxygen affinity, 597 ventilatory control and, 606, 607-608, 607f Carbon dioxide transport, 188, 598-599, 599f Carbon monoxide poisoning, 598 Carbonic acid, 599

Carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system, 628-631, 630f,631f

Carbonic anhydrase, 331,599 Cardiac action potential

in contractile sequence, 194

duration of, 198-199, I98f, 201

generation of, 196, 196f

propagation of, 196-198, 197f

reentrant, 209

slow vs. fast, 202

Cardiac afterload, 231-232

Cardiac arrhythmias, 206-210

atrioventricular node block, 206-207,210-211, 22l_y222f

Cardiac arrhythmias—cont’d bradyarrhythmias. 221, 22If, 222f electrocardiograms of, 220-224, 220-223f electrolyte abnormalities and, 180 origins of, 206 reentrant, 209 sinus arrest, 204, 206,206t tachyarrhythmias, 207-209,208f, 221-224,22If, 223f

treatment of, 206, 207,209-210,211

Cardiac cycle, 226-228, 227f

blood How to ventricles during, 271-272, 27If Cardiac defects

and cardiovascular dysfunction, 179

foramen ovale, 498,622,625

patent, 608-609

of heart valves, 233-235, 233t, 236-239,237f and murmurs, 233

patent ductus arteriosus, 234, 237,237f, 273-274,625-626

pathological consequences of, 235-238, 237f and right-to-left vascular shunts, 59If, 592, 608-609

Cardiac disease, in domestic animals, 183

Cardiac failure. See Heart failure

Cardiac function curves. SeeVentricular function curves

Cardiac glycosides, for arrhythmias, 209-210 Cardiac hypertrophy, 235. See also Ventricular hypertrophy

Cardiac mucosa, of stomach, 329, 330

Cardiac murmurs. See Heart murmurs

Cardiac muscle, 6

action potentials in. See Cardiac action potential contractile machinery of, 194-195, 195f contractility of. See Ventricular contractility contraction of

ischemia during, 271-272, 27If sequence of events in, I94t decremental conduction in, 207, 211 excitation-contraction coupling in, 88 functional syncytium of, 195-196, 195f innervation of, 136, 137b organization of, 87 oxygen delivery to, 183 pacemaker cells of. See Cardiac pacemakers refractory period of, 198f, 2OO-2OI, 200f, 204 Structureof, 194-195, 195f

Cardiac output, 184

and arterial blood pressure, 246-247 determinants of, 228-229, 228f, 233 during exercise, 247, 248f, 294, 599-600 in fetus, 622 heart rate and. 232, 232f neurohumoral regulation of, 276, 279

Cardiac pacemakers artificial. 206, 211 atrioventricular node. SceAtrioventricular node

ectopic, 207, 208-209, 208f, 222 sinoatrial node, 196, 196f, 197, I97f dysfunction of, 203-204, 203f

Cardiac tamponade, 295 electrocardiography of. 219

Cardiac valves. See Heart valves

Cardiogenic shock, 180

Cardiomyopathy, dilative, 223-224

Cardiovascular reflexes, 277, 283. See also Arterial baroreceptor reflex; Atrial volume receptor reflex

Cardiovascular system. See also Circulation; Heart; entries beginning with Vascular autonomic regulation of, 277-280, 278t birth transition of, 625 blood vessels of, 185-186,185t, 186f. See also

Blood vessels

blood volume distribution in, 185, 185t bulk flow and diffusion in, 181-183, 181 f, I82f dysfunction of. See also names of specific disorders, e.g., Heart failure congenital vs. acquired, 179 primary vs. secondary, 179-180 general layout of, 183-184, 183f hormone transport by, 411,415 overview of, 179

pulmonary vs. systemic circulation, 185t substances transported by, 180 thyroid hormone and, 433 tumor metastasis and, 51-52

Caretakers, 43

Carnitine, 403

Carotid body, 606-607,607f

Carotid rete, 642

Carotid sinuses, 280, 280f

Carrier membrane proteins, 14-15, I5f Caruncles, 494,620

Casein, 512

iodinated, for enhancement of lactation, 513 Caspases, 47,48

Cat

acromegaly in, 425-426 cerebellar hypoplasia in, 133-134 chronic renal failure in, 535 diabetes mellitus in, 454-455 flea infestation anemia in, 600-601 hepatic Iipidosis in, 406-407 hyperthyroidism in, 436

Catabolism, thyroid hormones and, 433 Catalysis, proteins and, 3

Cataracts, 147

Catecholamines, 78b. Seealso Dopamine;

Epinephrine; Norepinephrine biosynthesis of, 5-6,6f, 445-446,445f, 446f and bronchodilation, 573 effects of, 446-448, 446f, 448t receptors for. See Adrenergic receptors secretion of, 448

Caveolae, 88, 616

CCK. See Cholecy^fStokinin (CCK)

CD4 markers. See T-helper (Th) cells

CD8 markers. See Cytotoxic T cells CDK. See Cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) Cecocolic orifice, 384

Cecum

of birds, 324

of horse, 321-322. See also Hindgut motility of, 384

species variations in, 386-387

Cell body (soma) of neuron, 61,66

Cell cycle

cell lifespan regulation, 45-49,46-47f control of, 34,37-39,37-38f

Cell cycle—con Cd

growth factor pathway in, 39-40,40f inhibitors of, 43

MAP kinase pathway in, 40,40f, 41-43,42f phases of, 36-37, 37f

pRB and p53 in regulation of, 43-45,44f

Cell suicide. See Apoptosis

Cell wall

of bacteria, 653

of plants, 367-368

Ceils

membranes of. See Membranes, cellular proliferation of, in cancer, 34, 35-39,37-38f Cellular adhesion

in cell cycle regulation, 38,42-43,42f

in metastatic cascade, 5)

Cellular life span, determinants of, 48-49 Cellular motility, in metastatic cascade, 52 Cellular StructureZorganization, proteins and, 3 Cellulase, 368

Cellulose, 368

Central circulation, 184, 242

Central command, in exercise initiation, 293

Central diabetes insipidus, 553-554

Central nervous system (CNS)

anatomical and functional regions of, 61-63,62f autonomic division. See Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

catecholamines and, 447 meninges and cerebrospinal fluid in, 63 in movement. See Cerebellum; Motor system, somatic

organizational principles of, 107, l()7f, 108, 116 in regulation of reticulorumenal motility, 379-380

relationships of ventricles, CSF, and meninges, 155f

vestibular function. SeeVestibularsystem Central venous catheter, 229

Central venous pressure, 229

hemorrhage and, 284 measurement of, 229 Venoconstriction and, 278

Centroacinar cells, of pancreas, 332 Cephalic phase of digestion, 317,331 Cerebcllar cortex, 128

Cerebellar hypoplasia, 133-134

Cerebellar nuclei, 128

Cerebellar peduncles, 128 Cerebellum, 128-134

anatomy of, 128, I29f function of, 63. 129 functional regions of, 131-132, 132f, 133f histology of, 129f, 130-131,130f input/oulput organization of, 130. 13If in modulation of movement, 117 in motor learning, 132-133 symptoms of lesions in, 133

Cerebral aqueduct, 156

Cerebral cortex

function of, 63

in hearing, 174 histology of, 161-162, 162f in motor control, 113-115, 114f in vision, 151

Cerebral hemispheres, 63

Cerebral infarction, 183

Cerebrocerebellum, 131, 132f, I33f

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 63,154-158

diagnostic procedures, 154,156-157

flow and absorption of, 156-157, 157f formation of, 155-156

functions of, 154-155

hydrocephalus and. 154, 157-158

relationship to ventricles and meninges, 155f Cervical trauma, 94

Cervix, uterine, 492,494,497 cGMP. SeeCyclic guanosine monophosphate (cC.MP)

Checkpoints, 39,43 Chemically-gated ion channels, in synaptic transmission, 69

Chemokines, in respiratory defenses, 614 Chemoreceptor trigger zone, 319 Chcmoreceptors

in gut wall, 301,303f

in lung, 604, 606-608,607f

in rumen, and motility, 380

Chemotherapy, 54-55

Chewing. See Mastication Chief cells, 330,330f

Chloride

intestinal absorption of, 351,35If, 353t renal reabsorption of, 541,543-544, 543f, 544f, 552

ChlorideZbicarbonate exchanger, 631 Cholecystokinin (CCK)

bile acid secretion and, 334-335

pancreatic secretion and, 332

production site, action, and release stimulus, 306t stomach motility and, 317

Cholesterol, 356. 357f

bile acid formation from, 334, 334f

plasma levels of, thyroid hormones and, 433 in steroid hormone synthesis, 413,413f, 414f, 438,438f

transport of, 18-19, 18f

Cholesterol ester. 356, 357f

Cholesterol esterase, 356

Cholinergic neurotransmitter. SeeAcetyIcholinc Cholinergic receptors

classes of, 140, 277

Iigand gated channels and, 15-16

muscarinic, 140

and bronchoconstriction, 573

in cardiac regulation, 202, 205

in cardiovascular regulation, 278t, 279

in myasthenia gravis, 79

in neuromuscular junction, 77

nicotinic, 15-16,77. 140

Chorion, 620

Chorionic gonadotropins

equine chorionic gonadotropin, 423, 496 human chorionic gonadotropin, 481,494, 495f primate chorionic gonadotropin, 423

Choroid, 145

Choroid plexus, 156, 607

Chromaffin cells, 445,445f

Chronic airway disease, in horse, 575-576

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), 54

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 249 Chronic renal failure, 535

Chronic renal insufficiency, 554

Chylomicrons, 358-359, 359f

Chymosinogen, 344, 344t

Chymotrypsin, 344t

CID (combined immunodeficiency), 669

Ciliary body, 146, 147

Ciliary process, 152

Circadian rhythms

in cortisol levels. 441,441f

light and, 418

Circulation. Seealso Blood flow

blood flow scheme in, 183-184, I83f

blood volume distribution in, 185, I85t capillary blood flow in, 186, 186f central, 184, 242

coronary. See Coronary arteries

fetal, 622-623,623f

gastrointestinal, 184, 354-356, 355f heat transfer and, 641,642-643,642f microcirculation, 255. See also Capillaries pulmonary. See Pulmonary circulation splanchnic, 184 systemic, 242-247

arrangement of, 183-184, 183f blood pressures in, 184,242-244,243f, 246-247 blood vessel types in, 185t, 186 net resistance of, 246

organ blood flow regulation in, 247 perfusion pressure of, 184-185 vascular resistance in. SecVascular resistance

Circulatory convection, 642

Circulatory system. See Cardiovascular system Circumventricular organs, 159

Circus movement, 209

Cisterna magna, 156f, 157

Cisterns, mammary, 503, 504f

Clara cells, 613,613f

Clitoris, 469

Cloaca, 324

Clonal expansion, specific, 668

Clottingofblood, 187, 188

CML (chronic myeloid leukemia), 54

CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS) Coagulation, 187, 188

Cochlea

anatomy of, 120. 171, 17!f

sound transduction in, 171-173, 173f

tonotopic organization of, 174

Cold exposure, and catecholamine release, 448 Cold stress, 642, 642f, 647

Colic, 179, 191,309, 325, 387-388

Co-lipase, 356

Collapsing trachea, 575

Collateral ventilation, 575

Collecting duct system, 528,529f absorption/secretion in, 543-544, 544f, 559-561, 559-560f

structure of, 543, 544f

urea recycling in, 549-550, 5501'

and urine pH, 559-561,559-560f

water permeability of, 552-553,552f, 553f Colligative properties of solutions, 12 Colloid, of thyroid gland, 429,430

Colloid osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure), 12-13, 258

Colloid reflection coefficient. 615

Colon

anatomical variability of, 320, 320f

functions of, 320,321

of horse, 321 -322,325,387. See also Hindgut motility of, 384-386

motility of. 320-322, 320f, 321f

pacemakers of, 321,32If, 322, 325

species variations in, 386-387 Colony-stimulating factors, 40 Color vision, 150

Colostrum, 506-507,512

components of, 507,507t

formation of, 506

neonatal absorption of, 360

and passive immunity, 506-507

red blood cell-agglutinating antibodies in, 514 Combined immunodeficiency (CID), 669 Compartmentalization

biological membranes in, 9

membrane fusion in, 18

Compliance

definition of, 244,255

pulmonary. 569, 571

vascular

blood vessel types and, 243-244, 244f, 255-256 in pulmonary system, 247,249 and pulse pressure, 25If, 252

ventricular, 230, 23If

Compression, mechanical, and blood How, 271-273,271f,272f

Conduction deafness, 174 Conductive heat loss, 640,644 Cones, 147,148f

photoreception by, 149-150, I49f Conformation of proteins, 4,5f

in muscle contraction, 6-9, 7-8f

in physiologic regulation, 6

Congenital cardiac defects. See Cardiac defects Congenital deafness, 174

Congestive heart failure, 294-295 Connecting segment of nephron, 529f, 543, 544, 544f, 545-546

Continuous murmurs, 233, 234

Contraction of muscle, 6-9, 7-8f, 25

ischemia during, 271-273, 27If Convective heal loss, 640,644 Coordination

of eye movement, 124, 125-126, 131

of head/eye movements, vestibular system and, 125-126

of limb movement, cerebellum and, 63, 129, 131-132

Copulation, ovarian cycle modification by, 480 Core temperature, 642,642f, 645,646,646f Cornea, 145, 146

Coronary arteries

blood Ilow in, 271-272, 27If

in oxygen transport in, 183 Coronary artery disease, 272 Corpus luteum, 477-479, 478f, 479f

and follicular growth patterns, 475

in pregnancy maintenance, 493-495,494f, 495f Cortex

cerebellar, 128

cerebral. See Cerebral cortex

Corticobulbar tract, 113

Corticospinal tract, in voluntary motor control, 111-113.112f, H3f, 115-116

Corticosteroid-binding globulin (Iranscortin), 415, 439

Corticosteroids. See < Ilucocorticoids;

Mineralocorticoids

Corticosterone, 438

Corticotropin, 422f, 422t, 423,440-441

in mineralocorticoid secretion, 444 Corticolropin-Iike intermediate peptide, 423 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 424,424t Cortisol, 437. See also Cilucocorticoids

biosynthesis of, 414f, 438,438f circadian rhythms of, 441,441 f excess of, 426-427,442

fetal, in pregnancy termination, 496,497f, 499 gluconeogenesis and, 402,439-440 and lung maturity, 624 metabolism of, 439 mineralocorticoid activity of, 439,439f negative feedback control of, 440-441,440f potencies of, 439t transport of, plasma proteins and, 439 Co-transport (symport), 14, 347-348,347f, 348f of glucose and galactose, 349 Cotyledons, 620 Coughing, 574-575, 613 Countercurrent mechanism

in heat conservation, 550, 550f

in placental gas exchange, 621 -622,621 f

in renal medullary hypertonicity, 550-552, 55If, 552f

in temperature regulation, 642-643, 643f Cow. See also Runiinants

abomasal torsion in, 633,635, 636f brisket disease in, 582-583, 582f, 584 BVDV Cerebellardamage in, 134 digestion in. See Fermentative digestion enterotoxic diarrhea in, 362 grain engorgement toxemia in, 387 hardware disease in, 32, 295-296 hypocalcemia in, 88-89 lactational ketosis in, 406 metabolic alkalosis in, 562 peripheral edema in. 32 prolonged pregnancy in, 498-499 rumen development in, 382-383

Cranial nerve nuclei, 63 Cranial nerve reflexes, 108 Cranial nerve VIIl. 172, 174 Craniosacral system. See Parasympathetic nervous system

Creatinine clearance, 534-535

Creatinine, fractional excretion rate of, 538 CRI1 (corticotropin-releasing hormone), 424,424t Cricopharyngeal muscle, 315

Crista dividens, 622

Cristae ampullaris, 120, 12If, I23f Crop, avian, 323, 324 Cross-reactive epitopes, 653 Cryptorchidism, 488, 518-519 Crypts of Lieberkiihn, 339, 340f, 360 CSE See Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Cud chewing, 378 Cumulus oophorus, 472 Cupula, 120

Curd, 512

Cushing’s syndrome. See Hyperadrenocortidsni Cyanosis, 189, 598

Cydic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 28 regulation of, 27-28 as second messenger, 24,24f, 25-28,27f

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase, 28

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), as

second messenger, 28

Cyclin-dcpendent kinase (CDK) function of, 37-38, 37-38f regulation of, 38-39,42

Cyclins

in cell cycle regulation, 38

MAP kinase pathway and, 41 -42

Cytokines, 40

in gastrointestinal immune response, 308

in immune system regulation, 668 pyrogenic, 658-659, 659f in respiratory defenses, 614 T cell secretion of, 662,663

Cytotoxic T cells, 663,664,664f

DAG. See Diacylglycerol (DAG)

Dayvision_t 150

Dead-space ventilation, 568, 568f, 592 Dead-space/tidal volume ratio, 568 Deafness, 174

Deamination of amino acids, 396-397, 397f

Decerebrate rigidity, 111 Decibel scale, 169

Decremental conduction, in cardiac muscle, 207,

211

Defecation, 322,322f

Defense-alarm reaction, 203, 277, 283-284, 283f Defensins, 656

Deferent ducts, 519

Defibrillation, 208

Deglutition, 314-315, 314f

Dehydration, arterial blood pressure and,

246-247

Dehydroepiandrosterone, 495

Delivery. See Parturition

Dendrites, 61, 66-67

Dendritic cells, 658-659,662f

Dendritic spines, 67, 78

Dense bodies, 87

1 !-Deoxycorticosterone, 438

Deoxyhemoglobin, 599

Depolarization, 69, 70 Desensitization, of receptors, 21

Dexamethasone suppression testing, 442

Dextrins, 344

Diabetes insipidus, 421-422,553-554

Diabetes mellitus, 452-455,463-464, 546 acromegaly and, 426 ketone bodies in, 404

type 1,452

type 2,454-455

Diabetic ketoacidosis, 452-454

Diacylglycerol (DAG), as second messenger, 24, 24f,

29-30, 29f

Diagnostic procedures

arterial blood gas measurement, 634,634t

Diagnostic procedures—cont’d

brainstem auditory-evoked responses, 166, 166f electrocardiogram. See Electrocardiogram (ECG)

electroencephalogram, 161, 162-166, I63-I65f myelography, 154

sensory-evoked potentials, 161, 166, 166f spinal tap, 154, 156-157

Diaphragm, 568-569, 606

Diarrhea

and metabolic acidosis, 633,635-637,636f pathophysiology of, 360-362,36If

Diastole, ventricular, 226-228

Diastolic blood pressure, 184, 250

Diastolic filling time, 231,232-233 Diastolic murmurs, 233,233t, 234-235,234f Diencephalon, 63

Diestrus, 485

Diet. See also Food; Malnutrition

carbohydrates in

feline response to, 455

and insulin/glucagon secretion, 396-397, 397f 451,456

types of, 342-343, 343f

constituents of, and insulin/glucagon secretion, 396-397, 397f, 451,456

fats in, 356

in management of diabetes mellitus, 454-455 and ovarian activity, 490

proteins in

digestion of, 344-345,344t, 345f fermentative digestion of, 368, 371,371 f and glomerular filtration rate, 534 heat produced by metabolism of, 64It and insulin/glucagon secretion, 396-397, 397f

Diffusion. See also Passive transport

alveolar, 181-182,588-589,588f

capillary, 181-183. I82f, 256-259,256f, 257f Fick’s law of, 257-258, 257f

Digestion, 341 -346

of carbohydrates, 342-344, 343f, 346, 346f cephalic phase of, 317, 331 definition of, 339, 339f

of fats, 356-358,357-358f fermentative. See Fermentative digestion gastric phase of, 331, 332 hydrolysis in, 342,342f

intestinal phase of, 332-333

luminal phase of, 342-345, 343f, 344t, 345f membranous phase of, 342, 343f, 345-346, 345f, 346f

in neonates, 360

particle size reduction in, 341-342

of peptides, 346, 346f

of proteins, 344-345, 344t, 345f

Digestive enzymes, 342. 342f, 344t, 345, 346

Digestive secretions, 327-335

gastric, 329-331,330f

hepatic, 333-335, 333-335f

pancreatic, 331-333

salivary, 328-329, 328f, 329f

Digestive tract. SeeGastrointestinal tract

Dilative cardiomyopathy, 223-224

Dilution rate, of rumen, 379

Dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, 571

2.3- Diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), 598,624 Dirofilaria inunitis infestation. 179, 235,253 Dissociation constant, 629

Distal renal tubules, 529f

ammonia buffer in, 631

salt reabsorption by, 543, 543f_t 552 structure of, 542-543, 542f

Diurnal rhythms, 418

Dog

acromegaly in, 425-426 anesthetic hypoventilation in, 609 atrioventricular node block in, 210-211 brachycephalic syndrome in, 592-593 brain tumor-induced seizures in, 167 chronic renal insufficiency in, 554 congenital deafness in, 174 congestive heart failure in, 294-295 diabetes insipidus in. 553-554 diabetes mellitus in, 463-464, 546 dilative cardiomyopathy in, 223-224, 294-295

femoral nerve mononeuropathy in, 100-101 glomerulonephritis in, 535

Iiearnvorm disease in, 179» 235, 253 heat stroke in, 649-650 hemangiosarcoma in, 55-56 herniated intervertebral disk in_t 104-105 homonymous hemianopia in, 152 Horner’s syndrome in, 143 Iwperadrenocorticism in, 442 hypoadrenocorticism in, 444-445, 546-547 hypoglycemia in, 72-73 hypothyroidism in, 434-436 intraoperative hemorrhage in, 284-285 juvenile pancreatic atrophy in, 362 lung fibrosis in, 575 mitral insufficiency in, 617-618 motor cortex focal lesion in, 117 myasthenia gravis in, 79 patent ductus arteriosus in, 273-274, 625-626

patent foramen ovale in, 608-609 pituitary dwarfism in, 425 polyradiculoneuritis in, 104 pulmonic stenosis in, 238-239 respiratory acidosis in, 562 sexual attraction in spayed bitch, 490-491 upper airway obstruction in, 635,636f vestibular syndrome in, 126

Dopa, 6.6f, 446 Dopamine

biosynthesis of, 5-6, 445f, 446f as hypothalamic hormone, 424,424t secretion of, 470

and lactogenesis, 507 in Parkinson's disease, 116 prolactin inhibition by, 471, 47If

Dormitory effect, 490 Downregulation of receptors, 21

2.3- DPG (2,3-diphosphoglycerate), 598,624 Drug resistance, in cancer therapy, 54 Drugs, renal excretion of, 541 -542 Ductus arteriosus. 498,622, 625

patent, 234, 237, 237f, 273-274,625-626 Ductus venosus, 498,622 Dura mater, 63

Dynamic compression of airways, 574-575 Dysmetria, cerebellar disease and, 133

E2F transcription factor, 43-44

Ear

anatomy of, 120, I2θf, 170-171, I7θf, 171f inner. See Inner ear; Vestibular system middle, 170, 170f, 171-172

outer, 170, 170f

Eardrum, 170

Eccentric implantation, 494-495

Eccrine glands, 644

ECE See Extracellular fluid (ECF)

ECG. See Electrocardiogram (ECG) eCG (equine chorionic gonadotropin), 423,496 Ectopic cardiac pacemakers, 207, 208-209, 208f, 222 Edema

in chronic liver disease, 13

electrolyte abnormalities and, 180 formation of, 260,262-264,262-264f heart failure and, 263,288, 289 peripheral, hardware disease and, 32 pulmonary

electrolyte abnormalities and, 180 formation of, 615

in left-sided heart failure, 263, 288, 289

mitral regurgitation and, 236

systemic, in right-sided heart failure, 263

EEG (electroencephalogram), 161, 162-166, 163-165f

Efferent nerves, 61

Egestion, 324

Ejaculate, composition of, 519

Ejaculation, 519-520

Ejection fraction, 227

Elastase, 344t

Electrical dipole, 213,214f

Electrical signaling, potassium transport and, 16-17 Electrocardiogram (ECG), 213-224. See also specific elements, e.g., P wave

abnormal patterns in, 210,219-224, 219-223f basic principles of, 213-215,214f, 215f, 215t leads for, 218-219,218f

normal recording for, 215-218, 216-218f Electrochemical potential, 10 Electroencephalogram (EEG), 161, 162-166, 163-165f

Electrolytes. See also names of specific electrolytes, e.g., Potassium

absorption of, 349-352, 35O-352f, 353t cardiovascular transport of, 180 disorders of. See also names of specific abnormalities, e.g., Hypocalcemia

and cardiac arrhythmias, 180

and edema, 180

in hypoadrenocorticism, 444

enterocyte secretion of, 353-354, 354f intestinal absorption of, 349-352, 35O-352f, 353t in plasma, 187, 187t

in saliva, 329, 329f

Electromyography (EMG), 87

in lower motor neuron disease, 103

in upper motor neuron disease, 104

Electroretinogram (ERG), 150

Electrotonic current, 71

Elephantiasis, 263

Embden-Meyerhof pathway. See Glycolysis Embryo

early development of, 493

maternal recognition of, 493

Embryonic stem cells, 49

EMG. See Electromyography (EMG)

Emission of spermatozoa, 519

Emotional stale, cardiovascular response to, 283-284 Emulsification of fats, 356, 358f

Encephalopathy, hypoxemic ischemic, 253-254 End-diastolic volume, ventricular, 227

determinants of, 229-231, 230f

and stroke volume, 229-231,229f

ventricular contractility and, 231,23If Endocrine cells, gastrointestinal, 304-305, 305f,

306f

Endocrine effectors, 411,411 f

Endocrine system, 410-427. See also Hormones; names of specific endocrine glands and hormones

feedback control mechanisms in, 417-418,418f, 424-425,425f

function of, 411,41 If

of gastrointestinal tract, 304-307, 306f, 3061, 307f hormone synthesis in, 412-415,413f, 414f nervous system and, 412,418-419 pituitary gland and. See Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

signal amplification in, 412

target cell responses in, 415-416, 416f, 4l7f vascular hormone transport, 180,411,415 Endocytosis, 18, 18f

Endolymph, 120, 171

Endometrial cups, 496

Endopeptidases, 344, 344t β-Endorphin, gonadotropin secretion and. 471

Endosomes, in cholesterol transport, 19 Endothelial cells

division of, in response to VEGF, 53 movement of water and ions across, 12- 3

Endothelin

and renal sodium transport, 545

in vascular resistance regulation, 271 Endothelium, vascular, tumor growth and, 53-54 Endothelium-derived constricting factors, 533 Endothelium-derived relaxing factors, 533 Endotoxic shock, 180

End-product inhibition, in physiological regulation, 6

End-systolic volume, ventricular, 227

Energy metabolism. See Metabolism

Energy requirements, of ventilation, 567, 568-569, 569f

ENS. See Enteric nervous system (ENS)

Enteric nervous system (ENS), 139, 300-303, 30lb, 3Olf,3O3f

gastric secretion and, 331

pancreatic secretion and, 332 Enterochromaffin cells, 305 Enterochromaffin-Iike cells, histamine production by, 331

Enterocyles, 339, 341 f

electrolyte and water secretion in, 353-354, 354f fat absorption by, 356-358,359f

growth and development of, 360

Enterocytes—cont’d

in membranous digestion, 345-346, 345f transport systems in, 347-348, 347f, 348f

Enterogastric reflex, 318, 318f

Enterohepatic circulation of bile acids, 335,335f

Enterohepatic cycle, iodine and, 432 Enterokinase, 344

Enteropathy, protein-losing, 264-265 Enterotoxins, 361-362

Envelope, bacterial, 654

Environment, heat exchange with, 640-641, 644-645. See also Cold stress; Heat stress

Enzymes. See also names of specific enzymes and enzyme classes, e.g., Lactase, Digestive enzymes

catalysis by, 3

in catecholamine synthesis, 5-6

Epididymis, 519

Epinephrine

biosynthesis of, 5-6,6f, 445f, 446f cardiac contractile force regulation by, 205 in cardiovascular regulation, 277-279, 278t cardiovascular transport of, 180 effects of, 446-448,447f, 448t

Epitopes, antigenic, 653

Equilibrium (balance)

cerebellum and, 131 vestibular system and, 119

Equilibrium, electrochemical, 10

Equilibrium potential, 17

and resting membrane potential, 68

Equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG), 423,496 Equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy, 64 Erection, 519

ERG (electroretinogram), 150

Eructation contractions, 375,377-378f

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), 188 Erythrocytes, 188

fetal, 623-624

hemolysis of, neonatal, 514, 515

in oxygen transport, 182 pentose phosphate pathway in, 392

Escherichia coli, and Cnterotoxic diarrhea, 362 Esophageal groove, 383

Esophageal sphincters, 315, 316

Esophagus, motility of, 315-316, 315f

ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate), 188

Estriol, 495

Estrogcn receptor, 30, 3If

Estrogen response element, 30

Estrogens

biosynthesis of, 414f embryonic synthesis of, 493 follicular development and, 477 follicular production of, 472 gestational production of, 495-496,495f gonadotropin secretion and, 471 and sexual behavior, 487 in testicular feedback loop, 523

Estrous cycle, 479-480, 480f, 483 regulation of, 470-471,47()f stages of, 485

Estrus, 483,485

Eupnea, 605

Euthyroid sick syndrome, 435

Evaporative heal loss, 640,644-645,647

Exchangers (antiports), 14, 348 Excitation-contraction coupling, 8 Excitatory postsynaptic potential, 69,69f, 70 Executioner caspases, 47

Exercise

arterial blood pressure and, 247, 248f capillary recruitment during, 590 cardiac changes during, 233t cardiovascular response to, 292-294,293f gas transport during, 599-600,600f heat production during, 640 neurohuιnoral regulation of blood flow during, 276-277

organ blood flow distribution during, 247, 258 pulmonary circulation during, 583 pulmonary resistance during, 247 respiratory muscle activity and, 569, 569f temperature regulation during, 643,643f, 645-646

ventilatory response to, 608

Exercise intolerance, 179

heart failure and, 288, 288f, 294-295

Exercise reflex, in exercise initiation, 293 Exocrine effectors, 412

Exocrine glands, innervation of, 136, 137b Exocytosis, 18, 18f, 261,413

Exopeptidases, 344, 344t Expiratory muscles, 569 External genitalia

development of, 468-469 vasodilation in, 279

Extra-alveolar vessels, pulmonary, 579, 579f Extracellular fluid (ECF). See also Interstitial fluid calcium homeostasis and, 458-459 colloid osmotic pressure and. 12 substance concentrations in, I3ι

Extracellular matrix

cellular adhesion to, 42-43,42f

in tumor spread, 51-52

Extrafusal muscle fibers, 96-97 Extragonadal sperm reserves, 519 Extrapyramidal motor system, 108-111,109f Extravasation, 5 If, 52

Eye, 145-152. See also names of specific structures, e.g., Cornea

accommodation of, 147, 147f anatomy of, 145-147, 146f autonomic effects on, 14It, 142 catecholamines and, 447 diagnostic testing of, 142, 150, 152 intraocular pressure in, 152 photoreceptors of, 147, I48f, 149-150, 149f Pupillarysizeregulation, 142, 151-152 retina, 146-149, 148f

Eye movement, coordination of, 124, 125-126, 131

Facilitated diffusion, 14-16, 15f, 349

F-actin, 6

Fainting. See Syncope fak gene/Fak protein, 43

Farnesyl transferase inhibitors, 55

Fast-twitch muscle fibers, 85

Fats. See also Fatty acids

in colostrum, 507

digestion and absorption of, 356-359,357-359f

Fats—cont’d

metabolism of, 393-395, 394f, 398-399,402,403, 404-405, 404f

glucocorticoids and, 440 heat produced by, 64It insulin and, 451

in milk, 508, 511,51 It

types of, 356, 357f

Fat-soluble vitamins, absorption of, 356

Fatty acid-binding proteins, 356

Fatty acids

adipose tissue mobilization of, 402,403

adipose tissue synthesis of, 399

as Kiel, 392

hepatic synthesis of, 393-394, 394f ketone production from, 403-404, 404f noiiesterified, 356, 357f, 402 transport of, 394-395, 394f volatile. See Volatile fatty acids (VFΛs) Feed..See Food

Feedback control mechanisms

in endocrine system, 417-418,418f, 424-425, 425f

in gastrointestinal regulation, 305, 307, 3O7f Feline panleukopenia virus, 134 Female reproduction. See Lactation; Ovulation;

Pregnancy; Reproductive cycles; names of specific organs, e.g., Ovary

Femoral nerve, mononeuropathy of, 100-101 Fcrguson reflex, 497,498f, 509

Fermentative digestion, 364-388

in equine hindgut, 366-367, 383-388, 384-386f feed characteristics and, 378

grain engorgement toxemia and. 387 microbial ecosystem of, 366b, 367 protein and nitrogen cycling in, 368, 371-374, 371-373f

in ruminants. See Omasum; Reticulorumen rumination and, 378

sites of, 366-367

substrates of, 367-368,371 volatile fatty acid production by, 368-370, 369f, 370b, 370f

Fertilization, 493

Fescue toxicity, 515

Fetus

circulation of, 622-623,623f estrogen production by, 495-496 lung development in, 624

mammary development in, 505, 505f oxygen transport in, 620-625,621 -624f, 621t

in parturition initiation, 496, 497f, 499

Fever, 647-649,648f

cytokines and, 658,659f

Fiber, dietary, 342

Fick’s law of diffusion, 257-258, 257f

Flagella, as antigens. 654

Fluid balance. See Water balance

Fluid mosaic structure of biomembranes, 9 Foal

cervical trauma in, 94

combined immunodeficiency in, 669 diarrhea in, 635-637.636f

hemolytic crisis in, 514, 515

hypoxemic ischemic encephalopathy, 253-254 meningitis-induced seizures in, 159-160

Follicle cells

ovarian, 466

of thyroid gland, 429,431

Follicle, ovarian. See Ovarian follicle Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 422,422t, 469

anabolic steroids and, 524

in male, 522f, 523

Follicular phase of estrus cycle, 470,479-480,485 Food. See also Diet; Malnutrition; Nutrients assimilation of. See Absorption; Digestion characteristics of, and rumenal digestion, 378 heat produced by metabolism of, 64It prehension, mastication, and swallowing of, 314-315, 3l4f

Foramen ovale, 498, 622,625

patent, 608-609

Foreslomach, 366. See also Reticulorumen

Fovea, 148-149, 148f

Foveola, 148-149

Fractional composition of gas mixtures, 586

Fractional excretion rate, 538

Fractional reabsorption rate, 538

Free energy, 10

Frequency coding, by sensory receptors, 92 Frontal lobe, in motor control, 113-115, 114f Frostbite, 649

Fructose

from carbohydrate digestion, 342

Spermatozoal utilization of, 492

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, 400,400f

FSH. See Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

Fuel homeostasis, 391

Functional hyperemia. SeeActive hyperemia Functional residual capacity, 569,625

Functional specific gravity, of rumenal contents, 375

Fungi, and fermentative digestion, 367

Gcells. 305, 307,330,331

G proteins, 22, 22f, 23f, 41

G1∕G2 phases of cell cycle, 37-38, 37f Gain-of-function mutation, 39

Gait abnormalities, cerebellar disease and, 133 Gait, and respiration, 569, 569f, 608

Galactose, from carbohydrate digestion, 342 Gallbladder, 334

autonomic control of, 1411

Gamma motor neurons. SeeyMotor neurons Ganglia

ofautonomic nervous system, 137, I37f, 139,139f of enteric nervous system, 300, 303f motor, 63, 116-117

Ganglion cells. 148, 148f. 150-151

Gap junctions, 196

Gas exchange, 181-183, 588-593

abbreviations used for, 587t

alveolar. 181-182, 182f, 588-589, 588f, 589f and systemic arterial gas content, 590-591, 59 If

disorders of, 592-593

evaluation of, 592

metabolism and, 567

placental, 621 -622,621 f, 622f

processes involved in, 567, 567f

Gas exchange—cont’d

right-to-left shunts and, 591-592

in tissues, 182-183, 182f, 589-590, 590f

Gas mixtures, composition of, 586-587

Gases

dissolved, in plasma, 187t, 188, 595-596, 596f toxic, 612

transport of. See Carbon dioxide transport; Oxygen transport

Gastric emptying, 317-318,318f

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP). 306t, 317

Gastric mucosa, 329-330,330f

Gastric phase of digestion, 331, 332

Gastric pits, 329, 330f

Gastric secretions, 329-331, 330f

Gastric ulcers, 335

Gastrin

feedback loop of, 307,307f

gastric secretion and, 331

production of, 330

production site, action, and release stimulus, 306t

stomach motility and, 317

Gastrointestinal motility, 311 -325

in birds, 323-324, 323f

of colon, 320-322, 320f,32lf

and defecation, 322,322f

of esophagus, 315-316, 315f

function of, 312

peristalsis in, 315,315f, 319-320

slow waves in, 312-314,312f, 313f

of small intestine, 312, 319-320, 319f

smooth muscle contraction and, 313-314, 313f

of stomach, 316-319, 316f, 317f, 318f

in swallowing, 314-315, 314f

Gastrointestinal tract. See also Intestine; Stomach absorption in. SeeAbsorplion, intestinal anatomy of gut wall, 300, 3O2f avian, 323-324,323f

blood supply of, 184, 354-356,355f calcium absorption in, 458-459,461-462,462f digestion in. See Digestion; Fermentative digestion

innervation of, 139, 140,300, 303-304, 3O3f, 304f. See also Enteric nervous system (ENS) regulation of, 300-309

afferent neurons and, 61, 140, 301, 304 by extrinsic nervous system, 303-304, 303f, 304f

by immune system, 307-308 integration of, 307f, 308-309, 3O8f by intrinsic endocrine system, 304-307, 306f, 306t, 307f

by intrinsic nervous system, 139, 300-303, 30lb, 301f,303f

neurocrines and, 301,30lb, 303 stimulus-response coupling of gut reflexes, 307f

of ruminants. See Omasum; Reliculorumen secretion of water and electrolytes in, 353-354, 354f

secretions of. See Digestive secretions

smooth muscle of, 313-314, 313f

Gatekeepers, 43

Gender, embryonic determination of, 468-469,468f General adaptation syndrome, 436-437 Genetic dysfunction, and cancer, 35-36, 36f, 54 Genital organs, male, 518, 518t Genital system. See Reproductive system Genitalia, external

development of, 468-469 vasodilation in, 279

Germ line, 36

Gestation. See Pregnancy GFR. SecGIomeruIar filtration rate (GFR) GH. See Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin) GHRH (growth hormone-releasing hormone). 424,424t

Gibbs-Donnan effect, 599

GlP (gastric inhibitory peptide), 306t, 317 Gizzard, 323, 324

Glaucoma, 152

Gleevec (imalinib), 54 Glial cells, 61,66» 162 Glomerular basement membrane, 530. 53If Glomerular capillaries, 530-531,53If, 532f Glomerular filtrate, 530

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)₁ 530 determinants of, 531 -532, 532f measurement of, 534-535 regulation of, 532-534, 533f

Glomerular tuft, 530, 530f. See also Glomerular capillaries

Glomerulonephritis, 535 Glomerulus, 528, 529f anatomy of, 530, 530f, 531 f blood filtration by, 528, 530-531, 530f. See also Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) permselectivity of filtration in, 532

Glomus cells, 606-607 Glossopharyngeal nerve, 606 Glucagon, 455-457, 456f, 457f biosynthesis of, 448 and hepatic glucose metabolism, 399-400 and insulin secretion, 451-452 in ketone body formation, 404 secretion of, dietary constituents and, 396-397, 397f, 456

Glucagon receptor, cAMP as second messenger for, 25

Glucocorticoids, 437. See also Cortisol biosynthesis of, 414f, 438,438f circadian rhythms of, 441,441 f deficiency of, 444-445, 546-547 effects of, 439-440,440f excess of, 426-427,442 for inflammation, 441 metabolism of, 439 mineralocorticoid activity of, 439,439f potencies of, 439t regulation of, 440-441,440f synthetic analogues of, 4411 transport of, plasma proteins and, 438-439 Glucokinase, 455 Gluconeogenesis, 392 glucocorticoids and, 439-440 hepatic, from amino acids, 396-397,397f. 399-401,4OOf

in ruminants, 405-406,406f

Glucose

biosynthesis of. See Gluconeogenesis

Glucose—cont’d

blood levels of

abnormalities of. See Hyperglycemia;

Hypoglycemia

and insulin secretion, 451

from carbohydrate digestion, 342

conversion of, in rumen. 368,370b, 372-373, 372f

as fuel, 391-392

hepatic metabolism of, 393-394, 394f, 399-400, 400f, 402f

metabolism of catecholamines and, 446-448,447f glucagon and, 455-456,456f glucocorticoids and, 439-440 insulin and, 450-452,450f, 450t, 451f thyroid hormones and, 432-433

in neuronal functioning, 68

renal filtration and reabsorption of, 537, 538f, 540, 540f, 546

ruminant metabolism of, 405-406

transport of, 14, I4f

Glucosuria, 546

Glutaminase, 631

Glutamine, 631

Glycocalyx, 339, 341, 345

Glycogen

hepatic storage of, 392, 393

muscle deposition of, 398

Glycogen phosphatase, 400,400f

Glycogen synthetase, 400,400f

Glycogenolysis, 392

Glyeolysis

enzymatic regulation of, 400

Krebs cycle and, 392

Glycoprotein hormones, 422-423, 422l

GnRI I. See Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

GnRH-associated peptide, 470

Goat, parasitic anemia in, 190

Goblet cells, 341,613,613f

Goiter, 434

Goilrin, 434

Golgi tendon organs, 96, 97f, 100, 100f Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH),424, 424l

in male, 522f, 523

and puberty, 485, 523

pulsatile release of, in female, 470,470f

and sexual behavior, 488,488f synthesis of, 470

Gonadotropins. See also Chorionic gonadotropins; Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); Luteinizing hormone (LH)

modification of release of, 470-472,470f, 471 f production of, 469

Gonads. See also Ovary; Testis

embryonic development of, 466-468,467f, 468f

fetal estrogen production by, 495

G protein-Coupled receptors (GPCRs), 20 receptor tyrosine kinases compared to, 39 in signaling, 21 ∙24, 2It, 22∙24f

Grain engorgement toxemia, 387

Granule cell layer, 129f, 130, 130f

Granulosa cells. 466

Granulosa, of follicle, 472

Granulysin, 664

Gravity, and pulmonary blood flow, 249, 249f Growth factor pathway, in cell cycle regulation, 34, 38, 39-40,40f

Growth factors

angiogenic, 53-54

names of, 40

Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone. See Somatostatin

Growth hormone (GH, somatotropin), 422,422t in catabolic metabolism, 405 deficiency of, 425

for enhancement of lactation, 513, 5l3f excess of, 425-426 in lactogenesis, 507

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), 424,424t

Guanosine diphosphate, in G-protein-coupled receptor signaling, 22,23f

Guanosine triphosphate, G protein binding of, 22, 23f

Gular flutter, 645 Gut. See Intestine Gut closure, 360, 507 Guttural pouches, 643,643f

Hair cell receptors of vestibular system, 120, 121 f, 122,122f

Hair, in temperature regulation, 644,647 Hales, Stephen, 250 Haptens, 654

Hardware disease, 32, 295-296

Haustra, 321,384

hCG. See Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) Head, orientation of, 111

Head/eye movements, coordination of, vestibular system and, 124, 125-126

Hearing, 170-174, 170-173f. See also Ear

brainstem evoked responses and, 166, I66f Heart. See also Atria; Ventricles; entries beginning with Cardiac

auscultation of, 234

autonomic regulation of, 14 H, 202-206, 2O2f, 2O3f, 204t, 232-233

β-Adrenergic receptors in, 278t, 279 muscarinic cholinergic receptors in, 278t, 279

catecholamines and, 447

conduction system of, 196-198, 197f dysfunction of, 206-210, 206t, 208f contractility of. See Ventricular contractility contraction sequence of, 194t failure of. See Heart failure muscle of. See Cardiac muscle myocardial blood supply. See Coronary arteries pacemakers of. See Cardiac pacemakers workload of, cardiac defects and, 235-236 Heart attack. See Myocardial infarction Heart disease. See Cardiac disease Heart failure, 179, 286-289

arterial pressure decline with exercise in, 247 backward vs. forward, 289

bilateral, 286

causes of, 286

Heart failure—cont’d

complications of, 288-289, 288f congestive, 294-295

consequences and compensations for, 287-288, 287f, 294-295

decompensation in, 289 definition of, 286

dilative cardiomyopathy and, 224 and edema formation, 263,288, 289 left-sided, 286,617-618

compensatory mechanisms in, 289 pulmonary edema in, 263, 288, 289

vs. pump failure, 286

right-sided, 286

edema in, 288 hypoxia of altitude and, 582-583, 582f, 584 and intestinal blood flow, 356

ventricular contractility in, 231

Heart murmurs, 233-235, 233t, 234f

Heart rate, 228

autonomic regulation of, 202-203, 2O2f, 2O3f, 205,278t, 279

cardiac output and, 232, 232f

and pulse pressure, 251-252,251 f

thyroid hormones and, 433

Heart sounds

murmurs. See Heart murmurs

normal, 228, 233

Heart valves, defects of, 233-235, 233t, 236-239, 237f

Heartworm disease, 179, 235, 253

Heat conservation» countercurrent mechanism in, 550,550f

Heat loss, 640-641,644-645

Heat production, 640,641 -642,641 f, 6411

Heat stress, 642,642f, 646-647,647f

Heat stroke, 649-650

Heat transfer

circulation and, 180,641,642-643,642f countercurrent mechanism in, 642-643,643f Heaves, 575-576

Helper cells. See T-helper (Th) cells

Hemangiosarcoma, 55-56

Hematocrit, 188. 188t

and blood viscosity, 189,189f

exercise and, 600

hemorrhage and, 291-292

Hematology, 188, I88t

Hemianopsia, homonymous, 152

Hemicellulose, 368

Hemoglobin, 188, 188t. See also Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

as blood buffer, 629

carbon monoxide affinity of, 598 color of, 598

fetal, 623-624

indices for, 189

oxygen binding of, 596-597

in oxygen transport, 182, 189, 596-598,596-598f

Hemolytic crisis, neonatal, 514, 515

Hemorrhage

arterial blood pressure and, 246-247 blood volume restoration after. 291-292, 29If, 292f

cardiovascular responses to, 290-291, 290f intraoperative, 284-285

Hemorrhagic shock, 180

Hemostasis, 188

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 629 Henle’s Ioop₄ 529f, 542-543,542f

countercurrent mechanism in, 550-551, 55if Hepatic lipidosis, 406-407

Hepatic portal system, 184, 355-356, 355f

Hepatic sinusoids, 256f, 257 Hering-Breuer reflex, 605 Herniated intervertebral disk, 104-105 Heterometric autoregulation, 230 Heterotrimeric G protein, 22,22f, 23f Hindgut, 366,383-388 anatomy of, 384, 384 f fermentative digestion in, 366-367, 383, 384-386f, 386

motility of, 383-386, 385f species variations in, 386-387 water movement in, 386, 386f

Hippocampus, function of, 63

Histamine

and arteriolar dilation, 267

and edema formation, 264, 264f

and gastric secretion, 331

in gastrointestinal immune response, 308 Homeostasis

autonomic nervous system and, 140,142 blood-brain barrier and, 158 kidney and, 528

Homeotherms, 640

Homonymous hemianopsia, 152 Horizontal cells, 148, I48f

Hormone-binding proteins, 415 for adrenal hormones, 438-439 for thyroid hormones, 432

Hormones. See also Endocrine system; names of specific hormones, e.g.. Insulin biosynthesis of, 412-415,413f, 414f blood transport of, 180,411, 415 bound vs. free forms of, 415 classes of, 412 control of levels of, 417 definition of, 304, 411

feedback control mechanisms on, 417-418,418f, 424-425,425f

gastrointestinal, 304-307, 306t metabolism of, 417 in plasma, 187t, 188 pulmonary metabolism of, 616 receptors for, 415-416 steroid. See Steroid hormones

Hormone-sensitive lipase, 402 Hornerssyndroine, 143 Horse. See also Foal

androgen insensitivity in, 473 atrial fibrillation in, 600-601 chronic airway disease in, 575-576 colic surgery in, 309 colon of, 321-322

impaction of, 325, 387 motility of, 384-386

Cushing’s syndrome in, 426-427 degenerative Inyeloencephalopathy in, 64 exercise intolerance in, 239 fermentative digestion in. See Fermentative digestion

Horse—cont’d

fescue toxicity in, 514-515 gastric ulcer in, 335 hindgut of, 383-388 anatomy of, 384,384 f fermentative digestion in, 383,384-386f, 386 motility of, 383-386» 385f water movement in, 386, 386f

hypoxemia during anesthesia in, 593 infertility in, 480-481,524-525 laryngeal hemiplegia in, 569, 574 parasitic colic in, 179, 191 persistent luteal phase in, 481 pleuritis in, 616-617 protein-losing enteropathy in, 264-265 rabies in, 324 second-degree atrioventricular node block in, 207

strangles in, 659-660

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 481, 494, 495f

Hydrocephalus, 154, 157-158

Communicatingvs. noncommunicating, 158 Hydrochloric acid, gastric secretion of, 330-331, 330f

Hydrogen bonding, in protein three-dimensional structure, 4

Hydrogen ions

in carbon dioxide transport, 599 gastric secretion of, 330-331,330f renal excretion of, 540, 540f, 557, 557f, 559-561, 559-560f

sources of, 628

Hydrolysis

in digestion, 342, 342f

of fats, 356, 358f

Hydrophilic molecules, 334,359

Hydrophobic interactions, in protein three-dimensional structure, 4

Hydrophobic molecules, 334. 359 Hydrostatic pressure, 11-13, 259 Hydroxyapatite, 458

P-Hydroxybutyrate, 382,392, 392f

5-Hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), 305,616 Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's syndrome), 426-427, 442

Hypercalcemia, 462-463

of malignancy, 463 Hypercapnia, 591

as respiratory stimulant, 606 Hypercarbia. See Hypercapnia Hyperemia

active, 268,269f, 293

reactive, 269, 269f

Hyperglycemia

in diabetes mellitus, 452-453 and insulin release, 451,456f

Hyperkalemia

and acid-base disturbances, 634

and aldosterone release, 545 hypoadrenocorticism and, 546 Hyperphosphatemia, 463 Hyperpnea, 605

Hyperpolarization, 69,70

Hyperrellexia, in upper motor neuron disease, 104 Hypersensitization, of receptors, 21

Hypertension

pulmonary, 249 systemic

arteriolar constriction and, 246 and cardiac hypertrophy, 236 Hyperthyroidism, 436 Hyperventilation

alveolar

causes of, 588

and respiratory alkalosis, 632-633 carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system and, 630 Hypoadrenocorticism, 444-445, 546-547 Hypocalcemia, 88-89,463

lactation and, 514

and renal calcium reabsorption. 545 Hypoglycemia, 72-73

and catecholamine release, 448

and glucagon secretion, 455-456, 456f Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, 524 Hypokalemia, and acid-base disturbances, 634 Hyponatremia, hypoadrenocorticism and, 546 Hypoparathyroidism, 463 Hypophosphatemia, 463 Hypophysiotropic hormones, 423-424, 424l Hypophysis. See Pituitary gland (hypophysis) Hypoproteinemia, parasitism and, 190 Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system, 184, 423-424, 423f, 424f, 470

Hypothalamic-pituitary feedback control loop, 418, 418f, 424-425,425f

Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, 469-470, 469f, 522f, 523

in children, 523-524 Hypothalamoneurohypophyseal system, 419-420, 419f

Hypothalamus

function of, 63

gender differentiation and, 469 hypophysiotropic hormones of, 423-426, 424t pituitary gland and, 418-419,418f. See also Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system and sexual behavior, 487 thermoregulatory set point and, 646,647,649 Hypothermia, 649 Hypothyroidism, 434-436 Hypoventilation, 592-593 alveolar

causes of, 587f, 588

and respiratory acidosis, 632 anesthesia and, 609 carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system and, 630

Hypoxemia

during anesthesia, 593

patent foramen ovale and, 608-609

VentilationZperfusion mismatching and, 590 Hypoxemic ischemic encephalopathy, 253-254 Hypoxia

fetal, 623

as respiratory stimulant, 606 Hypoxic vasoconstriction, in lung, 249, 582-583, 582f, 584

Ileocecal sphincter, 320

Imatinib (Gleevec), 54

Immune response

antigen characteristics and. 654-655 to infection, 660

primary vs. secondary, 666,666f

secondary, 668

Immunity

acquired, 661-669 antibody response in, 665-668,666f, 667f

overview of, 662-663 regulation of, 668-669 T cells and, 663-665, 664f, 665f functions of, 652

in gastrointestinal tract, 307-308 innate, 611-612,655-659,656-659f, 662 passive, colostrum and, 506-507 in respiratory system, 612

Immunogenicity, 654

Immunoglobulins. See also Antibodies classes of, 667

colostral, 506-507

Implantation, 494-495

Induced ovulators, 480,480f, 493

Inducible nitric oxide synthase, 657-658 Infarction, 179

cerebral, 183

myocardial, 183,219, 220f

Infection, immune response to, 660

Infectious antigens, 652-653,653f

Infertility

in mare, 480-481

in stallion, 524-525

Inllammation, glucocorticoids for, 441 Information, definition of. 4

Information transmission and transduction.

See Signaling

Infrared radiation, heal exchange and, 644 Ingesta

hindgut, size separation and movement of, 383-386, 385f

rumenal

flow of, 375, 377f, 378 and motility, 380 rumination and particle size of, 378 Inhibin

follicular production of, 476 gonadotropin secretion and, 471 in testicular feedback loop, 523

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential. 69,69f, 70 Innate immunity, 611-612,655-659,656-659f, 662

Inner ear. See also Vestibular system; names of specific structures, e.g.₁ Cochlea anatomy of, 120, 120f, 171, 17lf sound transduction in, 171-174, 173f

Inositol l,4,5-triphosphate, as second messenger, 24,24f

Insemination, liming of, 493

Inspiratory muscles, 568-569

Insulin, 449-455

biosynthesis of, 448,449-450 chemical structure of, 449 deficiency of. See Diabetes mellitus for diabetes mellitus, 463-464 functions of. 180,398,450-452,450f, 450t, 451 f

Insulin—cont’d

and hepatic glucose metabolism, 393,400, 402f in postabsorptive phase, 401 secretion of, 449f, 451 -452, 452b, 456f, 457f dietary constituents and, 396-397, 397f, 451 Insulin resistance, in acromegaly, 426 Insulinoma, 72-73

Integrins, 43 Intention tremor, cerebellar disease and, 133 Intercalated cells, 560, 560f Intercalated disks, 87, 195 Intercostal muscles, 569,606

Interdigestive motility complex, 318-319 Interleukins. See also Cytokines

in respiratory defenses, 614 Interneurons, 92 Internodes, 71 Intersegmental reflex, 92-93,93f in lower motor neuron disease, 103 Interstitial cells of Cajal, 312-313, 312f Interstitial fluid. Seealso Extracellular fluid (ECE) capillary diffusion and, 181 colloid osmotic pressure and, 12 factors altering normal balance of, 260-264,262f, 263f, 264f

hydrostatic pressure of, 259, 260 reabsorption of, after hemorrhage, 291 solute exchange in, 256-258, 256f, 257f water exchange in, 258-260,260-261 f Interstitial implantation, 494 Intervertebral disk, herniated, 104-105 Intestinal absorption, 347-353

amino acid modification during, 395,395f of calcium, 458,461-462, 462f of carbohydrates, 349 definition of, 339, 339f, 347 of electrolytes, 349-352, 350-352f, 353t of fats, 356-359, 357-359f membranous-phase digestion and, 345-346, 345f metabolism during, 393-399, 393f amino acids in, 395-398,395t. 396-398f fatty acids in, 393-395, 394f glucose in, 393-394 insulin and, 393,396-397,397f, 398 tissue nutrient storage and, 398-399, 398f of proteins, in neonates, 360 transport systems in, 347-349,347-349f of volatile fatty acids, 380-382, 381 f, 382f, 386 of water, in intestines, 349,352-353,354-355, 355f

Intestinal epithelium. See also Enterocytes growth and development of, 360 microscopic anatomy of, 339-341,340f, 341 f transport in, 348-349, 349f

Intestinal ischemia, in heart failure, 288f, 289 Intestinal phase of digestion, 332-333 Intestinal secretion of water and electrolytes, 353-354,354f

Intestine. Seealso Colon; Small intestine autonomic effects on, 14 It glucose and amino acid transport in, 14, 14f innervation of. See also Enteric nervous system (ENS)

motor neurons in, 301

venous drainage of, 355-356, 355f

Intracellular buffers, 631

Intracellular fluid, substance concentrations in, 13t Intracellularpressure. 152

Intracranial cavernous venus sinuses, 643

Intracranial pressure, increased, 159

Intrafusal muscle fibers, 96-97

Intraocular pressure, 152

Intravasation, 51, 51f

Intrinsic gastrointestinal nervous system, 139

Intrinsic membrane proteins. See Membrane proteins

Inulin clearance, 534

Iodinated casein, for enhancement of lactation, 513 Ion channels. See also specific ion channels,

e.g., Calcium ion channels

in intestinal epithelium, 348-349

in synaptic transmission, 69

in transport process, 15-16, I5f

Ions. See Electrolytes; names of specific ions,

e.g., Sodium

Iris, 146, 151

Irritant receptors, in respiratory control, 605 Ischemia, 179, 183

muscle contraction and, 271-273, 27If of organs in heart failure, 288f, 289

Islets of Langerhans, 448-449,449f

Isomaltase, 346

Isomaltose

in diet, 343, 343f

digestion of, 344, 346

Isovolumctric ContractionZrelaxation, 227

Junctional folds, 76

Junctional tachycardia, 207

Juvenile pancreatic atrophy, 362

Juxtacapillary receptors, pulmonary, 605 Juxtaglomerular apparatus, 443,444f, 529f, 533 Juxtamedullary nephrons, 529f, 549

Kallikrein, 271

Keto-analogues of amino acids, 395, 395f Ketone bodies, 382

in diabetes mellitus, 404

formation of during undernutrition, 403-405, 403f, 404f

as fuel, 392-393, 392f

Kidney, 528-562. See also Nephrons; entries beginning with Renal

acid-base regulation by, 557-562,630

acid excretion and, 557, 557f, 559-560, 560f

ammonium gcneration/excretion and, 557-559, 557f

bicarbonate and, 557, 557f, 559, 561, 56If. 631

metabolic alkalosis and, 562

respiratory acidosis and, 562

ammonia excretion by, 557-559, 558f bicarbonate excretion by, 561,56If bicarbonate reabsorption by, 540-541,540f, 559, 631

blood flow regulation in, 532-534, 533f

blood supply of, 184

in blood volume restoration, 292

in calcium homeostasis, 459

Kidne∖—cont’d

calcium reabsorption by, 541, 543, 543f, 545-546 chloride reabsorption by, 541, 543-544, 543f, 544f, 552

collecting duct system of. See Collecting duct system

drug secretion by, 542

in electrolyte regulation, 180

glomerulus of. See Glomerulus

glucose reabsorption by, 537, 538f, 540, 540f, 546 hydrogen ion excretion by, 540, 540f, 557, 557f, 559-561,559-560f

magnesium reabsorption by, 543, 543f mineralocorticoids and, 442-443,443f, 443t organic ion secretion by, 541

overview of, 528, 529f

potassium excretion by, 544-545, 544f potassium reabsorption by, 541,543,543f renin production by, 443, 532

selective permeability in, 532

sodium reabsorption by, 543-545,543f, 544f, 552 tubules of. See Renal tubules

vitamin D metabolism in, 461

in water balance. See Water balance

Kitten, cerebellar hypoplasia in, 133-134

Knee jerk reflex, 92,98-99,98f

Krebs cycle, 391, 39If

amino acids and. 401

fatty acid β-oxidation and, 404-405,405f gluconeogenesis and. 404-405,405f, 406,406f glycolysis and, 392

Kupffer’s cells, 657

Kwashiorkor, 263

Labia, 468

Labyrinth. See also Vestibular system

bony vs. membranous, 120

Labyrinthitis, 126

Lactase, 346, 360, 512

Lactation, 506-514. See also Lactogenesis

cycle of, 512-514, 5l2f,5l3f

enhancement of, 513-514,513f

hormonal induction of, 512-513, 512f

and hypocalcemia, 514

photoperiod and, 513-514

reproductive cycles and, 489

Lactational ketosis, 406

Lactic acid, in anaerobic exercise, 608

Lactic acidosis, 387

Lactogen, placental production of, 496

Lactogenesis, 507-508, 508f, 509f

Lactose

in colostrum, 507

in diet, 343

in milk, 508, 511-512, 51 It

neonatal digestion of, 360

Lactose synthetase, 511

Lamina of glomerular basement membrane, 530,

53 If

Large intestine. See Colon

Laryngeal hemiplegia, 569, 574

Larynx

abductor muscles of, 569

dynamic compression of, 574

in swallowing. 314-315,314f

Lateral corticospinal tract, 112

Lateral geniculate nucleus, 151, 151f

Law of mass action, 629

LDLs. See Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

Leak channels, 15, I5f

potassium ion, 16

Left-sided heart failure, 286,617-618

compensatory mechanisms in, 289

pulmonary edema in, 263, 288,289

Lens, 146

accommodation by, 147, 147f

Leukemias

cancer stem cells and, 50

chronic myeloid leukemia, 54

Leukocytes, 188

B lymphocytes, 662,662f, 663,667-668 monocytes, 657, 657f neutrophils, 655-657,656f

T lymphocytes antigen-presenting cells and, 658-659, 663-665, 664f,665f

cytokine secretion by, 662,663 development of, 662f, 663 subclasses of, 663

Leukotrienes, pulmonary metabolism of, 616

Leydig cells, 467,518, 523

LH. See Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Libido, testosterone and, 488

Ligand binding, and allosteric shape change of proteins, 4, 5f

Ligand-gated channels, 15-16, I5f

in synaptic transmission, 69

Light, circadian rhythms and, 418

Light transduction, 149-150, 149f

Lignin, 368

Lingual lipase, 328

Lingual salivary gland, 328

Lipase, 356

Lipemia, 359

Lipids. See Fats; Fatty acids; Phospholipids Lipid-soluble/insoluble substances, capillary diffusion of, 256f, 257

Lipnlysis, thyroid hormones and, 433

Lipoprotein lipase, 398-399 β-Lipotropin, 422f, 422t, 423

Liver. See also entries beginning with Hepatic

in absorption of nutrients, 355-356,355f

amino acid uptake and metabolism by, 396-398, 396f, 402

enzymes of, 399-400

fatty acid metabolism in, 403-404,404f

glucose metabolism in, 393-394, 394f, 399-400, 400f,402f

ketone body production by, 403-404,404f microanatomy of, 333-334, 333f protein synthesis in, 396

secretions of, bile, 334-335, 334-335f

Liver disease

chronic, decreased blood oncotic pressure in, 13 diffuse, and intestinal blood flow, 356

Liver enzymes, in diabetic ketoacidosis, 453

Llama, ovarian follicular activity in, 480f

Lobar bronchus, resistance in, 572

Local anesthetics, for arrhythmias, 209

Locomotion. See Movement

Long-loop feedback system, 425,425f

Long-loop intersegmental reflex, 93,93f

Loss-of-function mutation, 43 Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in cholesterol transport, 19 thyroid hormones and, 433

Low-dose dexamethasone suppression lest, 442 Lower motor neuron disease, 102-103, 104

Lower motor neurons, 102, IO3f Luminal phase of digestion, 342-345,343f, 344ι, 345f

Lung. Seealso Alveoli (lung); entries beginning with Pulmonary

airways of. See Airways autonomic effects on, 14 Il birth transition of, 625 blood flow distribution in, 580, 580f blood vessels of, 578-580, 582f, 583 connective (issue septa of, 575 defense mechanisms of, 611-614,612-614f edema of. See Pulmonary edema elasticity of, 569-571,570f fetal development of, 624 fibrosis of, 575 gas exchange in. SeeAlveoli, gas exchange in hypoxic vasoconstriction in, 249, 582-583, 582f, 584

inflation of

and air flow resistance, 572, 573f

and vascular resistance, 581, 58If lymphatics of, 262,614-616 mechanical properties of, 574f, 575 pressure-volume curve of, 570, 570f receptors in, 605 surfactant in, 571, 571 f, 624 ventilation of. SeeVentiIation ventilation-perfusion mismatch in, 249, 249f, 590-591,59If

Lung capacity, total, 570

Luteal phase of estrus cycle, 470,479-480,485 persistent, 479, 481

Luieinization. 478

Luteinizing hormone (LH), 422, 422l, 469 anabolic steroids and, 524 in corpus Iuleum maintenance, 478 in male, 522f, 523 in pregnancy, 494,494f preovulatory surge of, 477,477f

Luteinizing-inhibiting factor, 477 Luteolysis, 478-479, 478f, 479f Lymphatic system

in fat absorption, 359 interstitial plasma protein and, 262 interstitial water removal by, 259, 260-261 f obstruction of, and edema, 263-264, 264f pulmonary, 262,614-616 tumor metastasis and, 51-52

Lymphedema, 263-264, 264f Lymphocytes. See B cells; T cells Lymphoid stem cells, 662f, 663 Lymphopoiesis, 662f, 663 Lysozymes, in saliva, 328

M phase of cell cycle, 36, 37f Machine milking, 511 Machinery murmur, 234,625

Macrophages, 657-658,657f, 658f

alveolar, 613-614,614f

Macula, 12 If, 122-123

Macula densa, 533

Magnesium

in diabetic ketoacidosis, 453 renal reabsorption of, 543, 543f

Magnocellular nuclei, 420

Major histocompatibility complex, 663-665,664f Malabsorptive diarrhea, 361,361 f

Male reproduction, 517-525 anabolic steroids and, 524 functional anatomy, 518-520, 518t hypothalamic-pituitary regulation of, 522f, 523 puberty, 523-524

spermatogenesis, 520-521,520f, 521 f Malnutrition

and edema, 263

metabolism during, 403-405,403-405f and ovarian activity. 490

Maltase, 346, 360

Maltose

in diet, 343, 343f digestion of, 346

Maltotriose, in diet, 343, 343f

Mammary buds, 503, 505

Mammary ducts

anatomy of, 503, 504f proliferation of, 505, 505f

Mammary gland, 501-515. See also Lactation anatomy of. 503-506, 503f, 504f, 509, 509f development of. See Mammogenesis disorders of, 514-515 involution of. 512

lack of development of. 514-515 IobesZlobules of, 505, 506f

Mammogenesis, 505-506, 5O5f, 506f fescue toxicity and, 514-515

Mandibular salivary gland, 328

MAP kinase pathway, 40,40f

in stimulation of cell cycle, 41-43,42f

Mast cells, histamine production by, 331

Mastication, 314, 328, 342

Mastitis, 514

Maternal recognition of pregnancy, 493

MCHC (mean cell hemoglobin concentration), 189

Mean aortic blood pressure, 184

Mean blood pressure, 250

Mean cell hemoglobin concentration (MCHC), 189

Mean circulatory filling pressure, 243

Mean hemoglobin concentration (MHC), 189 Mechanoreceptors

in gut wall, 301,3O3f

pulmonary, 604

Medial longitudinal fasciculus, 124

Medulla (brainstem)

function of, 63

respiratory regulation by, 604f, 605,607 reticular nuclei of, IlO

Megakaryocytes, 188

Mciosis, 477, 521

Meissner plexus. See Submucosal plexus

Cx-Melanocyle-Stimulating hormone (α-MSH), 423 Melanoma, metastasis of, 51 -52

Melatonin, and seasonality of reproductive cycle,

489

Membrane attack complexes, 664

Membrane fusion, in compartmentalization and transport, 18-19, 18f

Membrane potential, resting, 16-17

Membrane proteins channel vs. carrier, 14-16,15f functions of, 13-16,13-I5f in membrane structure, 9,9f spatial organization of, 17 types of, 14

Membranes, cellular differential permeability of, and resting membrane potential, 68 functions of, 9-10 of neurons, 67-68 of skeletal muscle, 82 structure of, 9-10,9f

Membranous labyrinth, 120, 171 Membranous-phase digestion, 342, 343f, 345-346, 345f, 346f

Memory B cells, 668

Meninges

anatomy of, 62f, 63 relationship to ventricles and CSF, I55f Meningitis, 159-160 Menopause, 486-487 Menstrual cycle, 483,484-485,484f Menstruation, 483 Mesencephalon, function of, 63 Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), 432,433f Metabolic acidosis, 633,633f, 635-637,637f ammonia excretion during, 559 bone in compensation for, 556 diabetic ketoacidosis and, 453 hypoadrenocorticism and, 546 ventilatory regulation and, 607,607f Metabolic alkalosis, 633,633f, 635,636f with paradoxical aciduria, 562 ventilatory regulation and, 607, 607f Metabolic rate

basal, 640,641,642

blood flow and, 267,268-269, 268t, 269f, 292-293

and autoregulation, 270, 270f heat production and, 640 thyroid hormones and, 642,647

Metabolism. See also under specific metabolic substrates, c.g._t Carbohydrates absorptive phase of, 393-399,393f amino acids in, 395-398, 395t, 396-398f fatty acids in, 393-395, 394f, 399 glucose in, 393-394, 394f, 396-397, 397f insulin and, 393, 396-397, 397f, 398 tissue nutrient storage and, 398-399, 398f catecholamines and, 446-448,447f endocrine control of, 412 glucagon and, 455-456, 456f glucocorticoids and, 439-440 heat production and, 641 -642,641 f, 6411 insulin and, 450-452,450f, 450t, 45If lung and, 616 in malnutrition/starvation, 403-405,403-405f postabsorptive phase of, 399-402, 399-402f thyroid hormones and, 432-434,433f, 434f Metamorphosis, thyroid hormones and, 433-434 Metastases, growth of, 52-54

Metastasis

definition of, 39, 50

of melanoma, 51-52

Metastatic cascade, 50-52, 51 f

Metestrus, 485

Methane, fermentative production of, 369-370

Methemoglobin, 598

MHC (mean hemoglobin concentration), 189

Micelles, 356-358, 358f, 359f

Microbial antigens, 652-653,653f

Microbial digestion. See Fermentative digestion

Microbial yield, 373

Microcirculation, 255. See also Capillaries

Microcotyledon, 621,621 f

Microfilaments, of muscle, 6

Microvilli

of intestinal mucosa, 339, 340f

of proximal renal tubule epithelium, 538, 539f

of respiratory tract, 613

Midbrain, function of, 63

Middle ear, 170, 170f, 171-172

Migrating colonic myoelectric impulses, 325

Migrating myoelectric (motility) complex, 309, 319-320,325

Milk

composition of, 511-512, 51 It

production of. See Lactation; Lactogenesis removal of, 509-511,510f

Milk letdown, 509

Milk release, suckling and, 412, 509-511,510f

Milk yield, 512-514, 512f,513f

Milking, 509-511,51 Of. Seealso Suckling

by machine, 511

Mineralocorticoids, 437. See also names of specific hormones

biosynthesis of, 414f, 438

regulation of, 443-444,443f

deficiency of, 444-445, 546-547 effects of, 442, 443f, 443t excess of, 443

glucocorticoid activity of, 439, 439f metabolism of, 439

potencies of, 439t

Minerals. See also names of specific minerals,

e.g., Calcium metabolism of, endocrine control of, 412

Minute ventilation, 567, 568

Mitochondria, in intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, 48

Mitogen-activated protein kinase. See MAP kinase pathway

Mitral insufficiency, 617-618

Mitral regurgitation, 236-237, 237f, 239

Mitral stenosis. 235,237-238,237f

Mitral valve, 227

Mixing contractions, 375, 377-378f

Molecular Iayerofcerebellum, 129f, 130, 130f

Molecular transport. See Transport

Monoblasts, 657,657f

Monocytes, 657,657f

Monoglyceride, 356, 357f

Monosaccharides, 342

Motilin, production site, action, and release stimulus, 306t

Motility, cellular, in metastatic cascade, 52

Motor cortex, 113-115,114f, 117

Motor Iearning_lCerebellum in, 132-133

Motor neuron pool, 86, 107f

Motor neurons

in gut wall, 301 lower, 102, IO3f

Iesionsof, 102-103, 104 preganglionic vs. postganglionic, 137,137f,

I38f

in reflex arc, 92

somatic vs. autonomic, 137, 137b

upper, 103, IO3f lesions of, 103-105

α-γ Motor neuron co-activation, 99, 110, 115-116 α Motor neurons

description of, 97

in lower motor neuron disease, 102

in movement, 86, 106-107

γ Motor neurons co-activation of, with alpha neurons, 99, 110,

115-116

description of, 97

in spindle sensitivity regulation, 99

Motor system, autonomic. See Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Motor system, somatic. See also Motor neurons; Movement; Skeletal muscle

basal ganglia in, 63, 116-117 brainstem motor pathways in, 108-111, 109f cerebellum in, 63, 117, 129, 132-133 corticospinal tract in, 111-113, 112-113f,

115-116

frontal lobe motor cortices in, 113-115, 114f hierarchical organization of, 107f, 108 sensory system compared to, 116 spinal cord in. IO7f, 108 voluntary movement corrections by, 115-116 in voluntary vs. postural muscle control, 106-107

Motor units, 86-87, 86f, 108

Movement. See also Postural muscle activity; Voluntary movement

central control of. See Motor system, somatic of eye, coordination of, 124, 125-126, 131 fractionation of, 113

of head and eye, coordination of, 125-126 inappropriate, in upper motor neuron disease, 103

of limbs, coordination of, 63, 129, 131-132 skeletal muscle and, 82,82f

skeletal muscle receptor organs and, 96-100, 97-98f, IOOf

mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid), 432, 433f α-MSH (a-melanocyte-stimulating hormone), 423

Mucociliary escalator, 613

Mucociliary respiratory lining, 613,613f

Mucous cells, of stomach, 330, 330f

Mucus

intestinal, 341,345

respiratory tract, 613,613f

Miillerian-inhibiting factor, 473

Multiple-drug resistance phenotype, 54 Multiunit smooth muscle, 88

Murmurs. See Heart murmurs

Muscarinic cholinergic agonist, 205

Muscarinic cholinergic antagonist, for sick sinus syndrome, 206

Muscarinic cholinergic receptors, 140

and bronchoconstriction, 573

in cardiac regulation, 202, 205

in cardiovascular regulation, 278t, 279

Muscle

absorptive phase metabolism in, 398, 398f cardiac. See Cardiac muscle

contraction of, 6-9, 7-8f, 25

ischemia during, 271 -273, 271 f

expiratory, 569

inspiratory, 568-569

postabsorptive metabolism in, 401-402,40if, 4O2f skeletal. See Skeletal muscle

smooth. See Smooth muscle

types of, 6, 81

Muscle cell, postsynaptic cell membrane of, 76-77

Muscle fibers, 82

cardiac, 194

intrafusal vs. extrafusal, 96-97

oxygen delivery to, 183

Muscle motor units, temporal summation of, 201

Muscle pump, 293-294, 293f

Muscle spindles, 96-99,97-98f

Muscle spindle stretch receptors, 606

Muscle stretch (myotatic) reflex, 98-99,98f Mutations, in cancer, 35-36, 54

Myasthenia gravis, 79

myc gene/Myc protein, 41 -42

Myelin sheath, 61,67

facilitation of conduction by, 71

Myelography, 154

Myenteric plexus, 300, 3O3f

Myocardial failure. See Heart failure

Myocardial infarction, 183

electrocardiography and, 219, 220f Myocarditis, 179

Myocardium. See Cardiac muscle

Myoepithelial cells of mammary gland, 509, 509f Myofibrils, 82, 194

Myogenic reflex, 270

renal, 532,533

Myoglobin, 600

Myosin, 6-7,7f, 82, 195

Myosin kinase, 25

Myotatic reflex, 98-99, 98f

Na’,K’-ATPase pump

in active transport, 13-14, I3f, 14f

intestinal absorption and, 348

in renal tubular transport, 540, 540f, 541, 543, 543f, 544f

and resting membrane potential, 16,68

NAD. See Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

Nares

abductor muscles of, 569

airflow resistance of, 572

dynamic compression of, 574

Natural killer cells, 662f

Necrosis, 45,46f, 179

Negative feedback loops, 418,418f Neocerebellum. See Ccrebrocerebellum

Neonatal Isoerythrolysis, 514,515

Neonate. See also Calf; Foal

birth transition of, 625

Neonate—cont’d

brown fat of, 642,647 carbohydrate stores in, 511 colostrum ingestion in, 506-507 diarrhea in, 635-637,637f digestion in, 360 hemolytic crisis in, 514, 515 physiological adjustments at birth, 498

Neoplasia. See Cancer

Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, 553

Nephrons, 528. See also Glomerulus; Renal tubules Juxtamedullary, 529f, 549 reptilian-type

anatomy of, 530, 540,549 and glomerular filtration rate, 436 in salt balance, 544 uric acid secretion by, 542 superficial, 529f, 549

Nephrotic syndrome, 263 Nernst equation. 16-17

Nerve deafness, 174

Nervous system. See also Autonomic nervous system (ANS); Central nervous system (CNS); Enteric nervous system (ENS); Peripheral nervous system (PNS) endocrine system and, 412, 418-419 function of, 63-64,64f functional unit of, 60-61 nonadrenergic Iioncholinergic inhibitory, 573 organization of, 61,61 b, 62f thyroid hormones and, 433

Neurocrines

definition of, 301

Ofgutwall, 301,30lb, 303

Neuroectoderm, 147 Neurohormones, 412f Neurohypophysis

embryonic development of, 419,419f hormones of, 419-422, 420f, 421 f, 469-470.

See also names of specific hormones.

e.g., Oxytocin

hypothalamus and, 469-470

Neurological diseases

equine degenerative myelocncephalopathy, 64 herniated intervertebral disk, 104-105 lower motor neuron disease, 102-103, 104 polyradiculoneuritis, 104

upper motor neuron disease, 103-105 Neurological examination, reflexes in, 93-94 Neuromuscular diseases, myasthenia gravis, 79 Neuromuscular junction

acetylcholine in, 76f, 77 acetylcholine inactivation in, 77, 78f anatomy of, 74-77,75f dysfunction of, in myasthenia gravis, 79 Neurons

action potential of, 69-71,70-72f anatomy of, 60-61,66-67,67f conduction velocities in, 71 motor. See Motor neurons neurosecretory, 412 oxygen delivery to, 182-183 preganglionic vs. postganglionic, 137, 137f, I38f

regenerative capacity of, 61 resting membrane potential of, 67-68,68f

Neurons—cont’d

sensory, 61

in muscle innervation, 97

in reflex arc, 92

of Vestibularsystem, 120, 122f visceral afferent, 61, 140, 301,304

synaptic transmission and, 69,69f

Neuron-to-neuron synapses, neurotransmitters in, 77-79, 78b

Neuropathy, femoral nerve, 100-101 Neurophysins, 420-421,470. See also Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, vasopressin); Oxytocin

Neurosecretory neurons, 412

Neurotoxins, 70

Neurotransmitter receptors

adrenergic. See Adrenergic receptors cholinergic. See Cholinergic receptors dendritic, 67

in neuromuscular junction, 77

in neuron-to-neuron synapses, 78

Neurotransmitters. See also names of specific neurotransmitters and classes of neurotransmitters

in autonomic nervous system, 139-140, 139f hypersensitivity to, 143

definition of, 412,412f major classes of, 78b in neuromuscular junction, 15-16, 76-77,76f, 78f

in neuron-to-neuron synapses, 77-79, 78b Neutrophils, 655-657, 656f Nexi, of cardiac muscle, 196

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), microbial production of, 368-369,369f

Nicotinic cholinergic receptors, 15-16, 77, 140 Night vision, 149-150

Nipple, 503

Nitric oxide

as gut neurocrine, 301

in nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibitory nervous system, 573

in prevention of renal damage, 533 in pulmonary artery vasodilation, 582 in vascular resistance regulation, 271 and vasodilation, 279

Nitrite poisoning, 598

Nitrogen metabolism. See also Amino acids, metabolism of; Proteins, metabolism of alanine in, 402,402f

in fermentative digestion, 372-374,372f, 373f Nitrogen sources, nonprotein, 373-374, 373f Nodes of Ranvier, 67,71

Nonadrenergic noncholinergic inhibitory nervous system, 573

Nonesterified fatty acids, 356, 357f, 402 Noninfectious antigens, 653,653f, 654

Nonketotic hyperosmolar diabetes. 453 Nonruminant period, 382

Norepinephrine

as autonomic neurotransmitter, 139, 139f biosynthesis of, 5-6, 445f, 446f cardiac contractile force regulation by, 205 cardiac regulation by, 202-203, 2O2f in cardiovascular regulation. 277-279, 278t cardiovascular transport of, 180 as circulating hormone, 139, 140

Norepinephrine—cont’d

receptors for. Sec Adrenergic receptors

reuptake of, 140

Nuclear receptor family, 20

Nuclear receptors, steroid hormone interactions, 30,31f

Nucleic acids, as antigens, 654

Nutrients. See also Food

assimilation of. SeeAbsorption; Digestion

cardiovascular transport of, 180

in plasma, 187t, 188

Nutrition. See Diet; Food; Malnutrition Nystagmus

physiological, 125

post rotatory, 126

spontaneous, 126

Ocular fundus, 146f

Oligodendrocytes, 67

Oligosaccharides, 343, 343f

Omasal transport failure, 380

Omasum, function of, 380

Oncogenes, 39-45

description of, 39

fak, 43

growth factor/oncogene pathway, 39-41,40f

in MAP kinase pathway, 41

myc_t 41 -42

ρ53, 45, 48

ras, 41

src, 43

Oncotic pressure, 12-13, 258

Oocyte, development of, 472

Oocyte-inhibiting factor, 477

Opioid neurotransmitters, 78b

Opsins, 149

Optic chiasm, 151, 151 f

Optic disc, 146

Optic nerve, 151, 151 f

Optic radiations, 151

Optic tracts, 151, 151 f

Organ of Corti, 171, I71f, 172, 173f

Organa vasculosum of the lamina terminalis,

647

Osmolality

renal medullary’ adaptation to, 553

and Teticulorunienal motility, 380

Osmolar (osmotic) concentration, 12

Osmolytes, organic, 553

Osmosis, 11-12, I If, 258-259

Osmotic pressure, 10,12,258

Ossicles, auditory, 170

Osteoblasts, 459

Ostcocytes, 459

Otolith organs. See Saccule of inner ear

Otoliths, 122

Outer ear, 170, 170f

Ovarian cycle, 479-480,480f, 483. See also Estrous cycle

in cow, 484f

lactation and, 489

Ovarian follicle

development of, 472-473

growth patterns of, 475-477,476f

Ovary, embryonic development of, 466-467

Ovulation, 467

control of, 475-477,476f, 477f induction of, with human chorionic gonadotropin, 481

spontaneous vs. induced, 479-480

Oximetry, 598

Oxygen

alveolar exchange of, 587-588 consumption of, 566-567, 567f during exercise, 599,600f

diffusion of, 258, 588-589, 588f

transport of. See Oxygen transport

Oxygen tension, 587t

alveolar, 587-588

barometric pressure and, 586 decreased, during anesthesia, 593 in fetal circulation, 622-623,623f in gas exchange evaluation, 592 and hemoglobin binding, 596-597 humidification and, 587 reduced. See Hypoxemia; Hypoxia tissue, 589-590, 590f

ventilatory control and, 606-607,606f

Oxygen transport, 181-183, 182f, 188, 189

during exercise, 599-600,600f exercise and, 599-600,600f in fetus, 620-625,621 -624f, 6211 hemoglobin and, 182, 189, 596-598, 596-598f

in plasma, 595-596,596f Oxyhemoglobin, 188, 189 Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, 591, 596-598, 596-598f

fetal, 624,624f

species variations in, 597, 597f

Oxytocin, 419-421

effects of, 421

in milk letdown, 412

and milk removal, 509-511,5 IOf

in parturition, 496,497, 498f synthesis and release of, 469,470

Oxytocin receptors, in myometrium, 497

P wave, 216-217, 216f

p53 gene, 45, 48

p53 protein, 43,44-45,45f

in aging, 55

as chemotherapy target, 55

in intrinsic pathway of apoptosis, 48

PACAP, as gut neurocrine, 301

Pacemaker cells, cardiac, 196

action potential of, 201-202 autonomic regulation of, 202-203, 2O2f, 204-205

Pacemakers

cardiac

artificial, 206,211

atrioventricular node. See Atrioventricular node

ectopic, 207, 208-209, 208f, 222 sinoatrial node, 196, 196f, 197,197f, 203-204, 203f

gastrointestinal, 321,32If, 322, 325, 384 Packed cell volume. See Hematocrit Paleocerebellum. See Spinocerebellum

Pancreas

autonomic effects on, 142t

exocrine secretions of, 331-333

histology of, 448-449,449f

hormones of, 448-449,449f. See also names of specific hormones, e.g._t Insulin

Pancreatic atrophy, juvenile. 362

Pancreatic enzymes, 332, 344, 344t

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency', 362

Pancreatic polypeptide, 448,458 Pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus and, 454

Panting, 568,644-645

Papillae, of rumen, 382

Paracellular absorption, 349, 539

Paracrine cells, gastrointestinal, 304-305,305f, 306f Paracrines, 411,41 if

and blood flow regulation, 267,268t, 271 definition of, 267, 304

Paradoxical aciduria, 562

Parafollicular cell, of thyroid gland, 430

Parallel processing, 116

Paralysis, in lower motor neuron disease, 103 Parasitism

and acquired cardiovascular disease, 179,235,

253

and anemia, 190, 600-601

and equine colic, 179, 191

Parasympathetic nervous system

anatomy of, 138f, 139

and bronchoconstriction, 573, 573f cardiac regulation by, 202-203,202f, 204, 204t, 205-206

cardiovascular regulation by, 278t, 279

function of, 140, 141-142t

gastrointestinal regulation by, 303-304, 303f, 304f salivary secretions and, 329

Parathyroid gland, 459-460, 459f Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

in calcium/phosphorus homeostasis, 459-460, 460f,461f

deficiency of, 463

in hy percalcemia diagnosis, 463

and renal calcium reabsorption, 545 Paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain, 138-139 Paresis, in lower motor neuron disease, 103 Parietal cells, gastric, 330,330f, 331 Parietal mucosa, of stomach, 329, 330

Parkinson’s disease, 116

Parotid gland, 328

Paroxysmal atrial tachycardia, 223-224, 224f, 232 Pars distalis. See Adenohypophysis

Pars intermedia, embryonic development of, 419 Pars nervosa. See Neurohypophysis

Pars tuberalis, embryonic development of, 419 Partial pressure, of gases, 586

Partial thromboplastin time (PTT), 188, I88t Particulates, airborne, 612,612f

Parturition, 496-498, 497f, 498f

stages of, 498

Passive electrotonic current, 71

Passive immunity, colostrum and, 506-507

Passive transport, 10

in intestinal epithelium, 348-349, 349f

of potassium, 16-17

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), 234, 237, 237f,

273-274.625-626

Patent foramen ovale» 608-609

PDA. See Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA)

Pectin, 368

Pelvic flexure, 384-385,387-388

Penile erection, catecholamine and, 447

Penis, 469,519

Pentose phosphate pathway, 392

Pepsin, 330, 344t

activation of, 344

production of, 331

Pepsinogen, 330,331, 344, 344t

Peptidases, 346

Peptide hormones

biosynthesis of, 412-413,413f

blood transport of, 415

postreceptor cell responses to, 416,417f receptors for, 415-416

Peptide neurotransmitters, 78b

Peptides

digestion of, 346, 346f

as neurocrines of gut wall, 301,30lb, 303 as nitrogen source, in rumen, 372-373, 372f regulatory, 305

renal reabsorption of, 541

Perfusion pressure, 181, 18If

blood flow and, 247, 248f, 267

of pulmonary circulation, 185,247

of systemic circulation, 184-185, 242 vascular resistance and, 244, 245f

Peribronchial plexus, 583

Perikaryon. See Soma

Perilymph, 120,171

Peripheral edema, hardware disease and. 32

Peripheral nervous system (PNS). See also Motor system, somatic; Somatic sensory system organization of, 61,61b

Peripheral resistance, total. See Total peripheral resistance (TPR)

Peristalsis, 315,315f

in small intestine, 319-320

Permselectivity of glomerular filtration. 532 Persistent luteal phase in mare, 479, 481

PGE₂ (prostaglandin E₂), 533

PGF_2α. See Prostaglandin F_2u (PGF_2tt)

PGI₂. See Prostaglandin 1, (prostacyclin) pH

definition of, 628

and hemoglobin oxygen affinity, 597-598, 5981' intracellular, 631

normal range of, 628

of urine, 559-561, 560f, 56If

Phagocytic cells, in body defenses, 655-658, 656-658f

Pharynx

abductor muscles of, 569 dynamic compression of, 574 in swallowing, 314-315, 314f

Pheromones, reproductive cycles and, 489-490 Phosphate

abnormal levels of, 463 organic vs. inorganic, 458 physiological role of, 458 regulation of. See also Calcium, regulation of calcitonin and, 460 parathyroid hormone and, 459, 460f

as renal tubular buffer, 557

Phosphate buffer system, 629,629f Phosphatidylinositol, 28-29

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate, 28-30, 29f

Phosphofructokinase, 400,4()0f

Phospholipase, 356

Phospholipase A, 496 Phospholipase C, 29

Phospholipid bilayer, in membrane structure, 9-10, 9f

Phospholipids, 9, 356,357f

Phosphorus, in diabetic ketoacidosis, 453 Phosphorylation

and allosteric shape change of proteins, 4, 5f

of enzymes, 399

of tyrosine hydroxylase, 6

Photoperiod

and circadian rhythms, 418 manipulation of, to increase milk yield, 513 511, 513f

and puberty, 485-486

and reproductive cycles, 488-489,488f Photopigments₁ 149

Photoreception, 149-150,149f

Photoreceptors. 147, 148f, 149-150. 149f Photorefractoriness, 489

Phrenic nerve, 568

Physiologic dead space, 568

Physiological nystagmus, 125

Physiological regulation, 2-32. Seealso Signaling biological membranes and, 9-10, 9f end-product inhibition of, 6 enzymatic reactions and, 5-6

information transmission and transduction calcium ion transport in, 24-25, 26f cell signaling mechanisms, 19-21 cyclic AMP in, 25-28,27f

G protein-coupled receptorsand, 21-24, 2It, 22-24f

phosphatidylinositol 4,5-biphosphate in, 28-30, 29f

steroid hormones in, 30, 31 f

of muscle contraction, 6-9, 7-8f proteins and, 3-5, 5f transport and. See Transport

Physiology, definition of, 3

Pia mater, 63

Pig

colon of, 322

swine influenza in. 649

Pili, as antigens, 654

Piloerection, 644, 647

Pineal gland, 489

Pinna, 170

Pinocytosis, 261

Pituitary dwarfism, 425

Pituitary gland (hypophysis), 411. See also Adenohypophysis; Neurohypophysis anabolic steroids and, 524 embryonic development of, 419, 419f hormones of, 419-423,422t, 469. Sec also names

Ofspecific hormones, t∙.g., Prolactin hypothalamic releasing hormones and, 423-426, 424t

hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system and, 184, 423-424,423f,424f, 470

Pituitary gland (hypophysis)—cont’d

in reproductive regulation, 469-470,469f, 522f, 523

Placenta

delivery of, 498

endocrine function of, 495-496, 495f

gas exchange al, 621 -622,621 f, 622f species variations in, 620,62If

Plants, cellular structure of, 367-368

Plasma

Componenlsof, 13t, 187, 187t oxygen dissolved in, 595-596, 596f proteins in. See Plasma proteins

Plasma membranes. See Membranes, cellular

Plasma oncotic pressure, 12-13,258

Plasma osmolality, and antidiuretic hormone secretion. 421-422,42 If

Plasma proteins, 187, 187t

in capillary osmotic differential, 258, 261 decreased, and edema, 263, 263f hormone-binding, 415,432 in interstitial space, 261-262

Platelet aggregation, 188

Platelets. 188

Pleura, 571

Pleural cavity, 571-572

pressures in, 569, 570f

Pleural effusion, heart failure and, 288

Pleural fluid, 615-616

Pleurilis, 616-617

Plicae circulares, 339

Pluripotent stem cells, 188

Pneumonia, and right-to-left vascular shunts, 592 Pneumotaxic center, 605

PNS. See Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Podocytes of glomerular capillaries, 531,531f Poikilotherms, 640,641

Poiseuilles law, 245

Polar molecules, definition of, 10

Polycythemia. 189

and oxygen capacity, 596f, 597 Polymorphonuclear neutrophils, 662f Polyradiculoneuritis, 104 Polysaccharides, digestion of, 346

Pons

function of, 63

reticular nuclei of, 110

Ponline nuclei, 113

Pontine respiratory group, 604f, 605

Population coding, by sensory receptors, 92 Portal systems, 184

hepatic, 184, 355-356,355f

hypothalamic-hypophyseal, 184,423-424,423f, 424f, 470

renal, 184, 540

Portal vein, 184

Positive feedback loops, 418

Postabsorptive metabolism, 399-402, 399-402f Posterior chamber, 146

Postganglionic neurons, 137, I37f, 138f Postrotatorynystagmus, 126

Poslsynapiic potential, 69,69f

Postural changes, blood pressure adjustments and, 28l,281f, 292

Postural muscle activity

brainstem motor pathways in, 108-111, 109f

Postural muscle activity—cont’d

spinal cord in, 108

vs. voluntary movement, 107

Potassium

and acid-base homeostasis, 634

decreased levels of, 634

in diabetic ketoacidosis, 453

Potassium (contd)

increased levels of, 545, 546,634 intestinal absorption of, 352, 352f, 353t in mineralocorticoid regulation, 444 passive transport of, in electrical signaling, 16-17 renal reabsorption of, 541,543, 543f renal secretion of, 544-545, 544f mineralocorticoids and, 442-443

Potassium ion channels, 68,69, 70

in cardiac muscle, 198-199, 202, 205

PP interval, 217, 217f

PR interval, 217f pRB, 43-44,44f Preantral follicles, 472

Precapillary sphincters, 256

Preganglionic neurons, 137, I37f, I38f

brain areas influencing, 142-143, 143f Pregnancy, 492-496

corpus Iuteum in, 493-495, 494f, 495f endocrine function of placenta in, 495-496, 495f

fertilization and early embryo development, 492-493

mammary gland development and, 505, 506f maternal recognition of, 493 prolonged, 498-499

termination of. See Parturition

Pregnancy toxemia, 406

Pregnant mares’ serum gonadotropin. See Equine Chorionicgonadotropin (eCG)

Pregnenolone, 413,414f, 438,4 95 Prehension, 314

Premotor cortex, 114-115

Premotor neurons, 108

Preovulatory surge of gonadotropins, 473 Preprohormones, 412

Prerenal azotemia, hypoadrenocorticism and, 546 Pressure receptors. See Baroreccptors

Pressure-volume curve, of lung, 570, 570f Presynaptic terminals (synaptic boutons), 61,67, 76

Prevertebral ganglia, 139

Primary follicles, 472

Primary hypoparathyroidism, 463

Primary motor cortex, 113-114, 114f

Primary tumor, 50-51,52

Primary visual cortex, 151

Primate chorionic gonadotropin, 423

Primates

female libido in, 488

follicular development in, 476

menstrual cycle of, 483,484-485,484f ovarian cycle in, 479-480 pregnancy in, 494,495f

progesterone production in, 478 puberty in, 486

reproductive senescence in, 486-487

PRL See Prolactin (PRL)

Proestrus, 484,485

Progenitor cells, 50f

Progesterone

gonadotropin secretion and, 471 luteal production of, 477-478 placental production of, 495 and sexual behavior, 487

Progoitrin, 434

Programmed cell death. See Apoptosis Prohormones, 412-413

Proinsulin, 449-450

Prolactin inhibitors, 471-472

Prolactin (PRL), 422,422t, 469

gestational levels of, 496

in lactogenesis, 507, 511 secretion of, 471-472,47If

Proliferation, cellular, in cancer. 34, 35-39, 37-38f Pro-opiomelanocortin hormones, 422,422f, 422t Propionale (propionic acid), 368. 369f absorption of, 382 chemical structure of, 370f

in ruminant gluconeogenesis, 406, 406f Proprioceptive positioning, 117 Proprioceptors, 604

Prostacyclin, 271, 533

Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), 533

Prostaglandin F_2o (PGF_2o)

for infertility in mare, 480

in Iuieolysis, 478-479,478f, 479f ovulation and, 477

in parturition initiation, 496-497,497f

for persistent IuteaI phase, 481

in placental expulsion, 498

in pregnancy, 493, 494f

uterine production of, 493

Prostaglandin I₂ (prostacyclin), 271,533 Prostaglandins

in ducius arteriosus closure, 625

in fever, 647,649

in gastrointestinal immune response, 308

in immune system regulation, 668

in pulmonary artery vasodilation, 582 pulmonary metabolism of, 616 in renal vasodilation, 533

Prostate gland, 519

Proteases, secretion of, by cancer cells, 52 Protein hormones

biosynthesis of, 412-413,413f blood transport of, 415 postrecepιor cell responses to, 416,417f receptors for, 415-416

Protein kinase inhibitors, for cancer, 54

Protein kinases, 28, 30

Protein-Iosing enteropathy, 264-265 Proteins

as antigens, 654 binding sites of, 4 in colostrum, 507 dietary

digestion of, 344-345, 344l, 345f fermentative digestion of, 368, 371,37If and glomerular filtration rate, 534 heat produced by metabolism of. 64It and insulin/glucagon secretion, 396-397, 397f

functions of, 3-4

in mediation of physiological change, 3-4,6

Proteins—cont’d

membrane

channel vs. carrier, 14-16, 15f functions of, 13-16, I3-I5f in membrane structure, 9,9f spatial organization of, 17 types of, 14 metabolism of, 398. 401-402, 40If, 402f

end products of. 542 glucocorticoids and, 440 insulin and, 451

microbial synthesis of, in rumen, 372-374, 372f, 373f

in milk, 508, 51 It, 512

in muscle contraction, 6-9,7-8f neonatal absorption of, 360 in phospholipid bilayer structure, 9,9f plasma

in capillary osmotic differential, 258, 261 decreased, and edema, 263, 263f hormone-binding, 415,432 in interstitial space, 261-262 renal reabsorption of, 541 shapes of, and function, 4-5, 5f synthesis of, hepatic, 396 Proteolytic enzymes, 344, 344t Prothrombin time (PT), 188, 188t Protons. See Hydrogen ions Proto-oncogenes, 39 Protozoa, and fermentative digestion, 367 Proventriculus, 323, 324 Proximal muscles, 108 Proximal renal tubules, 529f epithelium of, 538, 538f, 539f reabsorption by, 538-541.540f, 54If, 559,631 secretion by, 541-542, 559 structure of, 538-539,538f, 539f water reabsorption in, 548-549 Pseudopregnancy, 480 Psychogenic effects

in cardiovascular control, 277, 283-284, 283f, 284f

in exercise initiation, 293

PT (prothrombin time∣, 188, 188t PTl I. See Parathyroid hormone (PTH) PTT (partial thromboplastin time), 188, 188t Puberty female, 485-486, 485f, 486f mammary gland development and, 505, 505f male, 523-524

Pulmonary arteries

blood pressure in, 185,247 vasoconstriction of, 249,282f, 581-583,582f, 582t

Pulmonary arterioles, 578-579

Pulmonary blood pressure, 185,247, 580 Pulmonary capillaries, 579, 579f, 614-615,615f Pulmonary circulation, 578-584 alveolar hypoxia and, 582-583, 582f, 584 arrangement of, 183f, 184 blood flow distribution in, 580, 580f blood pressures in, 185,247, 580 blood vessels of, 578-580, 579f chemical mediators of, 581-582, 582f disorders of, 583-584 exercise and, 583 mechanical compression and, 272f, 273

Pulmonary circulation—corn’d

overview of, 578

oxygen transport and, 181 -182

perfusion pressure of, 185, 247

resistance in, 247, 249,249f, 580, 580f, 581,58If species variations in, 578-579

Pulmonary compliance, 569, 571

Pulmonary edema

electrolyte abnormalities and, 180 formation of, 615

in left-sided heart failure, 263, 288, 289 mitral regurgitation and, 236

Pulmonary embolism, heartworm disease and, 253

Pulmonary fluid exchange, 614-616,6l5f Pulmonary hypertension, 249

Pulmonary vascular pressures. See Pulmonary blood pressure

Pulmonary’ vascular resistance, 247, 249,580-581, 580f,58lf

Pulmonary veins, 579

Pulmonary venous pressure, 580

Pulmonary ventilation. See Ventilation Pulmonary wedge pressure, 580 Pulmonic stenosis, 238-239

Pulse oximeter, 598

Pulse pressure

after hemorrhage, 291

factors affecting, 250-252, 25If

Pump failure, 235-236

heart failure vs., 286

Pupil, 146

autonomic control of, 142, 151-152

Pupillary light reflex, 142

direct vs. consensual, 152

Purine neurotransmitters, 78b

Purkinje cell layer, 129f, 130, 130f Purkinje fibers, 197

Pyloric mucosa, 329, 330

Pylorus, 317

Pyramidal cells, 162, I62f

Pyramidal decussation, 112

Pyramidal tract. See Corticospinal tract Pyrexia. See Fever

Pyrogenic cytokines, 658,659f

Pyrogens, 647,648f

Q wave, 216, 2l6f

QRS complex, 216f, 217

QT interval, 217, 217f

R wave, 216,216f

Rabies, in herbivores, 324

Radiant heat exchange, 640, 644

Ras protein, 22,40,41 f

as chemotherapy target, 55

ras proto-oncogene, 41

Rathke’s pouch, 419, 419f

RB protein, 43-44,44f

Reaction coupling, proteins and, 3

Reactive hyperemia, 269, 269f

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), 20

growth factor activation of, 39-40,40f RecepiorZligand complex, and specificity of information, 20-21

Receptor-mediated endocytosis, in cholesterol transport, 19

Receptors. See also names of specific receptors,

e.g., Estrogen receptor

adhesion receptors, 42-43

adrenergic. See Adrenergic receptors alterations of sensitivity of, 21 chemoreceptors. See Chemoreceptors cholinergic. See Cholinergic receptors classes of, 20

dendritic, 67

G-protein-coupled, 20, 21-24,2It, 22-24f, 39 growth factor receptors, 39-40

hormone, 415-416

intrinsic membrane proteins as, 9

in neuromuscular junction, 77

in neuron-to-neuron synapses, 78

nuclear receptors, 30, 31 f

second messengers and, 25

sensory. See Sensory receptors

in signaling pathways, 20

Recruitment

capillary, during exercise, 590

of muscle motor units, 86

Rectal temperature, 645,645t Rectosphincteric reflex, 322, 322f Recumbency, air distribution in lung during, 575 Red blood cell-agglutinating antibodies, 514, 515 Red blood cells. See Erythrocytes

Red muscle, 85

Red nucleus, 111

Reentrant arrhythmias, 209 Reflex arcs

components of, 91-92, 92f

segmental vs. intersegmental, 92-93,93f Reflexes. See also Reflex arcs; names o f specific reflexes, e.g._t Pupillary light reflex autonomic, 140, 142

cardiovascular, 277, 283. See also Arterial baroreceptor reflex; Atrial volume receptor reflex

cranial nene, 108

definition of, 91

intersegmental, 92-93,93f, 103

in lower motor neuron disease, 103 muscle stretch (myotatic), 92,98-99,98f myogenic, 270, 532, 533

in neurological examination, 93-94 segmental reflexes, 92,93f, 103,104 in upper motor neuron disease, 104 vestibular, 124-126

Refractory period. 198f, 200-201,200f, 204

of cardiac muscle, 198f, 200-201,200f, 204 Regulation, physiological. See Physiological regulation

Regulatory peptides, 305 Relaxin

ovulation and, 477

in parturition, 497-498

in pregnancy, 494,496

Renal blood flow, 532-534, 533f

Renal clearance, 534-535

Renal failure

chronic, 535

heart failure and, 288f, 289

Renal insufficiency, chronic, 554

Renal medulla, 529f

hypotonicity in, 549-552, 550-552f osmolality adaptations of, 553

Renal portal system, 184

of birds, 540

Renal tubules, 528, 529f, 537-547

acid excretion by, 557,557f

in acid-base balance, 631

distal tubule

ammonia buffer in, 631

salt reabsorption by, 543, 543f, 552 structure of, 542-543, 542f

drug secretion by, 542

functional assessment of, 538

in glomerular filtration rate regulation, 533 organic ion secretion by, 541 proximal tubule, 529f

reabsorption by, 538-541, 540f, 54If, 559,631 secretion by, 541-542, 559 structure of, 538-539, 538f, 539f water reabsorption in, 548-549

reabsorption by, 537, 538f

Renin

in blood volume restoration, 292

functions of, 443

production of, 443, 532

Renin angiotensin aldosterone system, 443-444, 443f

and glomerular filtration rate, 532-533, 533f volume receptor reflex activation of, 282-283 Repolarization, 70

Reproduction

female. See Lactation; Ovulation; Pregnancy; Reproductive cycles

Iiypothalamopituitary control of, 469-470,469f male, 517-525

anabolic steroids and, 524 functional anatomy, 518-520, 518t hypothalamic-pituitary regulation of, 522f, 523

puberty, 523-524

spermatogenesis, 520-521, 520f, 52If

Reproductive cycles, 483-491. See also Estrous cycle; Ovarian cycle

lactation and, 489

menstrual cycle, 483,484-485,484f nutrition and, 490 pheromones and, 490 photoperiod and, 488-489, 488f puberty, 485-486, 485f, 486f sexual behavior and, 487-488, 487f, 488f

Reproductive senescence, in primates, 486-487

Reproductive system. See also names of specific organs, e.g._t Ovary autonomic effects on, 142t

development of, 466-469, 467f, 468f, 473 gonadotrophin release in, 470-472,470f, 471f

Reptilian-type nephrons anatomy of, 530, 540, 549 and glomerular filtration rate, 436 in salt balance, 544 uric acid secretion by, 542

Residual volume, 572

Respiratory acidosis, 632,632f, 635,636f chronic, with renal compensation, 562

Respiratory alkalosis» 632-633,632f

Respiratory burst, 656f, 657

Respiratory exchange ratio, 588

Respiratory frequency, 568

Respiratory function. See also Ventilation

overview of, 566-567

Respiratory muscles, 568-569, 569f, 570f, 606 Respiratory pump, 294

Respiratory system. See also Lung;

Tracheobronchial tree; Upper airway

in acid-base balance, 556-557,630-631,633-634 dead space of, 568, 568f

defense mechanisms of, 611 -614,612-614f feedback control of, 603-604, 604f mucociliary lining of, 613,613f tidal volume of, 567

Resting membrane potential, 16-17 determinants of» 68

origins of, 67-68, 68f

Reticular activating system, 166

Reticular formation, 63, 110

Reticular groove, 383

Reticuloperitonitis, traumatic. See Hardware disease

Rcticulorumen. See also Fermentative digestion anatomy of, 374, 374f

development of, 382-383

dilution rate of, 379

feed characteristics and, 378

motility of, 374-375, 377-378f

control of, 379-380

nitrogen metabolism in, 372-374, 372f, 373f particulate matter flow in, 375,377f, 378 physiological functions of, 374

protein digestion in, 368, 371, 37If

protein synthesis in, 372-374,372f, 373f volatile fatty acid production in, 368-370, 369f, 370b, 370f

water movement in, 378-379

Reticulospinal tracts, 108, 109f, 110-111 Retina

anatomy of, 146-147, 146f

cell types of, 147-148, 148f

fovea, 148-149, 148f

tapetum, 149

Retinal pigment, 149

Retinal, 149

Retinoblastoma, 43-44

Retino-geniculo-stτiate pathway, 150-151, 151f Retino-hypothalamic pathway, 150

Retino-tectal pathway, 150

Retropulsion, in colon, 321

Rho protein, in tumor spread, 41, 52

Rhodopsin, 149

Right-sided heart failure, 286

edema in, 288

hypoxia of altitude and, 582-583, 582f, 584 and intestinal blood flow, 356

Right-to-left vascular shunts, 591-592,591f, 608-609

Rigor mortis, 7

Rods, 147,148f

photoreception by, 149-150,149f

RR interval, 217-218, 217f

RTKs. See Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) Rubrospinal tracts, 108,109f, 111

Rumen. See Reticulorumen

Rumen acidosis, and metabolic acidosis,633

Rumen mat, 375

Rumenal epithelium

development of, 382

volatile fatty acid absorption by, 381-382, 38if Ruminants

clinical disorders of. See under Cow

colon of, 322

digestion in. See^, Fermentative digestion gastrointestinal tract of. See Omasum;

Reticulorumen

gluconeogenesis in, 405-406, 406f ketone body metabolism in, 392-393 saliva of, 329, 329f, 379

volatile fatty acids as energy substrate for, 371 Rumination (cud chewing), 378

S phase of cell cycle, 36,37f

S wave, 216f, 217

saccharides, 342-343

Saccule of inner ear, 120, I2θf, 122-123, 124f Saliva

electrolyte composition of, 329,329f enzymes of, 328

of ruminants, 329, 329f, 379

Salivary amylase, 328

Salivary enzymes, 328

Salivary glands, 328-329, 328f, 329f

Saltatory conduction, 71

Saponins, 664

Sarcolemma, 82

action potential of, 83-84

Sarcomere, 82, 195

contraction of, 84-85,85f

Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 82,84f, 199 Scalaeofcochlca, 171,171 f

Schwann cells, 67

Sclera, 145

Scrotum, 469, 518

Seasonal effects on reproductive cycles, 488-489, 488f

Second messengers

calcium ion concentration as, 24-25,24f, 26f cyclic adenosine monophosphate as, 24, 24f, 25-28, 27f, 416

definition of, 24 diacylglycerol as, 24, 24f, 29-30 in hormone response, 416,417f inositol l,4,5-triphosphate, 24,24f Secretin

bile acid secretion and, 334-335 pancreatic secretion and, 332 production of, 331

production site, action, and release stimulus, 306t stomach motility and, 317

Secretory diarrhea, 361-362

Secretory granules, 305

Segmental reflexes, 92,93f

in lower motor neuron disease, 103

in upper motor neuron disease, 104 Segmentation, in small intestine, 319, 319f Seizures

brain tumor-induced, 167

meningitis-induced, 159-160

Selective transport

in biological membranes, 9 membrane proteins and, 13-16, 13-I5f

Solve, Hans, 436

Semen, composition of, 519

Semicircuiarducts, 120-122,120f, 122f, 123f

and vomiting, 319

Seminal vesicles, 519

Senescence, 49

Sensory neurons, 61

in muscle innervation, 97

in reflex arc, 92

of Vestibularsysiem. 120, I22f visceral afferent, 61, 140, 301,304

Sensory receptors chemoreceptors. See Chemoreceptors in gut wall, 301,303f in muscle

Golgi tendon organs, 96,97f, 100, IOOf muscle spindles, 96-99,97-98f photoreceptors, 147,148f, 149-150, 149f primary vs. secondary, 91-92 pulmonary, 604,605-608 ofvestibular system. 120,121f, 122, I22f

Sensory system, somatic, 61,116

Sensory-evoked potentials, 161, 166, 166f

Septic shock, 180

heart failure and, 288f, 289

Serial processing, 116

Serotonin (5-hyactive transport, 13-14, 13f, 14f

intestinal absorption and, 348

in renal tubular transport, 540, 540f, 541,543, 543f, 544f

and resting membrane potential. 16.68 Solutes, exchange of, in interstitial fluid, 256-258, 256f, 257f

Solvent drag, 539

Soma, 61,66

of neuron, 61,66

Somatic cells, 36

Somatic sensory system, 61, 116. See also

Sensory neurons; Sensory receptors Somatomammotropins, 422

Somatomedins, 424

Somatostatin, 424,424t, 448

functions of, 457-458, 457f

as gut neurocrine, 301

Somatotopic map, 113-114, 114f

Somatotopic organization

in corticospinal tract, 112, 113f

in sensory system, 116

in spinal cord, 107f, 108

Somatotropin. SeeGrowth hormone (GH, somatotropin)

Sound waves, 169-170, I7θf

frequency/amplitude of, 169, 172, 174 transduction of, 171-172, 172f, 173f

Spatial summation, of muscle motor units, 86 Specific gravity, functional, of rumenal contents, 375 Sperm. See Spermatozoa

Spermatocytes, 520

Spermatogenesis, 520-521,520f, 521 f Spermatogonia, 520

Spermatozoa. See also Spermatogenesis

daily production of, 521

major elements of, 521, 52If

maturation of, in epididymis, 519 metabolism by, 492

transport of, in female tract, 492-493 Spermiogenesis, 521

Sphincter of Oddi, 334

Spinal cord

anatomy of, 61,62f, 63

function of, 63

lateral-medial organization of motor neuron pools in, 107, 107f, 108

in motor control, 107f, 108

Spinal fracture, cervical, 94

Spinal tap, 154, 156-157

Spinocerebellum, 131-132, I32f, 133f

Splanchnic afferent nerves, 304

Splanchnic circulation, 184

ischemia of, in heart failure, 288f, 289

Splenic contraction

after hemorrhage, 291

during exercise, 600

Split second heart sound, 228

Spontaneous nystagmus, 126

Spontaneous ovυlators, 479

src gene/Src protein, 43

ST segment, abnormalities of, 219,220f

Standard bicarbonate, 635

Starch, in diet, 343, 343f

Starling forces, 259 Starling’s equation, 259,615 Starlingshypothesis, 12-13 Starling’s law of the heart. 230 Starling’s mechanism, 287 Starvation, metabolism during, 403-405,403-405f.

Seealso Malnutrition

Stellate cells, 162,162f

Stem cells

in cancer, 50, 50f

embryonic vs. adult, 49-50 lymphoid, 662f, 663 pluripotent, 188

Steroid diabetes, 440

Steroid hormones. See also names of specific hormones, e.g., Cortisol of adrenal cortex. See Adrenal cortex, hormones of

anabolic steroids, 524, 525 biosynthesis of, 413-414,414f blood transport of, 415 metabolism of, 417 nuclear receptor interactions of, 30, 31f post receptor cell responses to, 416,416f receptors for, 415-416

sex hormones, 413. See also Estrogens; Testosterone

Stomach. See also entries beginning with Gastric autonomic effects on, 14It

avian, 323,324

emptying of, 317-318. 3l8f function of, 316-317

motility of. 316-319, 3l6f. 317f, 3I8f mucosa of, 329-330, 330f protein digestion in, 344-345 ruminant. See Reticulorumen secretions of, 329-331,330f

Strangles, 659-660

Streptococcus e∣∣ui, 659-660

Stress. See also Cold stress; Heat stress

and catecholamine release, 448

and cortisol levels, 441

Stretch receptors, pulmonary, 604,605

Striate cortex. SeeVisual cortex

Striatum, 116

Stroke, 183

Stroke volume

and cardiac output, 228-229 definition of, 227

end-diastolic volume and, 229-231,229f heart rate and, 232

and pulse pressure, 251,25If Strongylus vulgaris infestation, 179,191 Subarachnoid space, 63, 156 Submucosal plexus, 300, 303f Substance P, as gut neurocrine, 301 Suckling

intervals for, 511

and lactogenesis, 507, 508f, 509

and milk release, 412, 509-511,5IOf

and ovarian activity, 489

Sucrase, 346

Sucrose, in diet, 343

Sudden cardiac death, 208

Sugars (saccharides), 342-343

Superficial nephrons, 529f, 549

Supplementary motor cortex, 114

Supraventricular tachycardia, 207

Surface tension, in lung pressure-volume hysteresis, 570-571,570f

Surfactant, pulmonary, 571,57If, 624

Suspensory ligaments of eye, 146, 147

Suspensor}' ligaments of udder, 505

Sustentacular cells, 606

Swallow reflex, 314-315, 314f

Sweat glands, 644

Swine. See Pig

Swine influenza, 649

Sympathetic cholinergic neurons, 279

Sympathetic nervous system anatomy of, 138-139, 138f and bronchodilation, 573, 573f

cardiac regulation by, 202-203,2O2f, 204-205,204t cardiovascular regulation by, 277-278, 278t and catecholamine release, 448

function of, 140, 141-142l gastrointestinal regulation by, 303f, 304, 304f in heart failure compensation, 287

Sympathetic trunk. See Paravertebral sympathetic ganglion chain

Sympathomimetic drugs, 211

Symporters. See Co-transport (symport)

Synapse, 61,67,67f

electrical vs. chemical, 74 neuromuscular, 74-77, 75f, 76f, 78f neuron-to-neuron, 77-79,78b in reflex arc, 92

Synaptic boutons, 61,67, 76

Synaptic cleft, 67, 76

Synaptic transmission mechanism of, 69,69f neurotransmitters in. See Neurotransmitters

Synaptic vesicle, 67, 76, 76f

Syncope, vasovagal, 277,284, 284f Syncytiotrophoblasts, 494

Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIAL)H), 422

Systemic blood pressure. 184, 242-244, 243f, 246-247

Systemic circulation, 242-247 arrangement of, 183-184, 183f blood pressures in, 184, 242-244, 243f, 246-247 blood vessel types in, 185t, 186 net resistance of, 246

organ blood flow regulation in, 247 perfusion pressure of7, 184-185, 242 vascular resistance in. 5t^,e Vascular resistance

Systemic edema, edema, in right-sided heart failure, 263

Systemic hypertension arteriolar constriction and, 246 and cardiac hypertrophy, 236

Systole

atrial, 227-228

ventricular, 226-228

Systolic blood pressure, 184,249

Systolic murmurs, 233-234, 233t, 234f

T cells

antigen-presenting cells and, 658-659,663-665, 664f, 665f

cytokine secretion by, 662,663

development of, 662f, 663

subclasses of, 663

T lymphocytes. See T cells

T tubules (transverse tubules), 83,85f

T wave, 216f, 217

Tachyarrhythmias, 207-209,208f, 221 -224,221 f, 223f

Tachycardias, 207-209

Tachypnea, 605

Tapetum, 149

Target organ, in reflex arc, 92

T-cell antigen receptor, 663,665

Tectorial membrane, 171, 17If, 172, 173f

Tectospinal tracts, 108, 109f, 111

Telencephalon, 63

Telencephalon, function of, 63

Telomerase, 49

Telomeres, 49

Temperature

abnormal, 649

core, 642, 642f, 645,646, 646f

environmental. See Environment

heal input/oulput and, 640-641,64If hemoglobin oxygen affinity and, 597 rectal, 645,645t

regulation of. SeeThermoreguIation

and tissue function, 640

Temperature-sensitive receptors, 645-646 Temporal summation, of muscle motor units, 86 Territorial marking, 490

Tertiary active transport, 348

Testis

anabolic steroids and, 524, 525

anatomy and function of, 518-519

daily production of spermatozoa and, 521 descent of, 519

embryonic development of, 467-468, 467f feedback control mechanisms and, 522f, 523 hormonal regulation of, 522f, 523

Testosterone

anabolic steroids and, 524

exogenous administration of. 524

pulsatile release of, 471

and reproductive development, 468-469, 468f and sexual behavior, 487

in testicular feedback loop, 523

Tetany, 87

Tetralogy of Fallot, 592

Thalamus, function of, 63

Thecal layer, 472

T-helper (Th) cells, 663, 664-665, 665f

Thermal gradient, 644

Thermogenesis, 640,641 -642,641 f, 6411

Thermoregulation, 556-557, 639-650

countercurrent mechanism in. 642-643.643f fever and, 647-649,648f

hoIneothermic vs. poikilothermic strategy for, 640 hypothalamic set point and, 646,647.649 peripheral VasoconstrictionZvasodilation and, 642,642f, 647

temperature-sensitive receptors and, 645-646

Thermoregulatory set point, 646,647,649

Thick filaments, of muscle, 6,7f

Thin filaments, of muscle, 6

Thiouracil, 434 Thiourea, 434 Thirst in blood volume restoration, 292 volume receptor reflex activation of, 282

Thoracic duct, 359

Thoracolumbar system. See Sympathetic nervous system

Threshold, of voltage-gated channels, 16 Threshold potential, 70

Thrombin, 188 Thrombocytes. See Platelets Thromboxane A,

in kidney, 533 in vascular resistance regulation, 271

Thrombus, 183 Thymocytes. 663 Thyroglobulin, 430,431 Thyroid gland

calcitonin production by, 460 histology of, 429-430,430f

Thyroid hormones, 428,430-436 abnormal levels of, 434-436 biosynthesis of, 430, 430f blood transport of, 415 functions of, 432-434,433f, 434f half-lives of, 432 metabolism of, 432 normal serum values of, 435t plasma transport of, 432 bound vs. free forms of, 432,435 release of, 431-432,43If storage of, 430

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 422,422t, 432,434

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) assay, endogenous canine, 435-436

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulation test, 436

Thyronine (T₄). Seealso Thyroid hormones biosynthesis of, 430 normal serum values of. 430t

Thyroperoxidase, 430 Thyroprotein, for enhancement of lactation, 513 Thyrotropin. See Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH), 424,424t, 434

and prolactin secretion, 472

Thyroxine, in thermogenesis, 642,647 Thyroxinebinding globulin, 430,431,432 Thyroxine binding prealbumin, 432 'Tidal volume, 567

Tight junctions, 17

Ofentcrocytes, 340-341

in intestinal passive transport, 349 Tissue oxygen tension, 589-590, 590f Tissue pressure hypothesis of autoregulation, 270 'Tissues

amino acid uptake by, 398, 398f fuel storage in, 398-399 gas exchange in. 182-183, 182f, 589-590, 590f postabsorptive metabolism in,401-402,40If, 402f Toll-Iike receptors, 612

Tonotopic organization of cochlea, 174 Topographic organization. See Somatotopic organization

Total carbon dioxide, 635

Total peripheral resistance (TPR), 246-247

in blood pressure regulation, 277 and pulse pressure, 25If, 252 Toxins

enterotoxins, 361-362 gaseous, 612 interference with action potential, 70 neurotoxins, 70 nitrite poisoning, 598 pulmonary metabolism of, 616

TPR. SeeTotal peripheral resistance (TPR) Trachea, 572. See also Tracheobronchial tree collapsing, 575 mucociliary escalator of, 613

Trachealis muscle, 572 Tracheobronchial tree anatomic dead space and, 568,568f anatomy of, 572 autonomic innervation of, 573,573f dynamic compression of, 574-575 frictional resistance of. See Airflow resistance particle clearance in, 612-613,612f

Transcalciferin, 461

Transcellular absorption, 349,349f Transcellular transport, 17, 538-539 Transcortin, 415,439

Transcription factors, 30 Transduction of information, 3. See also Signaling Transit time, 312

Transmural pressure, 581

Transmural pressure difference, 181, 181 f Transport, 2, 10-19

active, 11,13-16,13-15f, 181

in enterocytes, 347-348, 347f, 348f co-transport, 14, 347-348, 347f, 348f, 349 in distal renal tubule, 543, 543f facilitated diffusion, 14-16, 15f, 349 in intestinal absorption, 347-349, 347-349f membrane fusion and, 18-19, 18f membrane proteins and, 13-16, 13-I5f osmosis and, 11-12, Ilf paracellular, 349, 539 passive, 10

in intestinal epithelium, 348-349, 349f of potassium, 16-17

proteins and, 3. See also Membrane proteins in proximal renal tubule, 538-541, 540f, 54If selective

biological membranes in, 9

membrane proteins and, 13-16, 13-15f spontaneous, 10 Starling’s hypothesis and, 12-13 transcelIular, 17, 538-539

Transport amino acids, 395

Transport proteins. See Membrane proteins Transpulmonary pressure, 570 Transverse tubules (T tubules), 83,85f

Traumatic Teticuloperitonitis. See Hardware disease T-regulatory cells, 668-669

TRH. SeeThyrotropin-Teleasing hormone (TRH) Triacylglycerols. See Triglycerides

Tricarboxy^rIic add cycle. See Krebs cycle

Triglycerides, 356, 357f

adipose tissue storage of, 398-399

as fatty acid source, 392

in milk, 511

Triiodothyronine (T₅). Seealso Thyroid hormones biosynthesis of, 430,431 normal serum values of, 430t

Trophoblastin, 493

Tropomyosin, 8-9,8f, 82

Troponin, 8-9, 8f, 82

Trypsin, 344,344t

Trypsinogen, 344, 344t

TSH. Set’ Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Tubules, renal. See Renal tubules 'Tubuloglomerular feedback, 533

Tumor necrosis factor, in respiratory defenses, 614 Tumor suppressors, 34, 43-45,44-45f

Tumors. See Cancer

Tympanic membrane, 170

Tyrosine

in catecholamine synthesis, 445f, 446,446f metabolism of, 5-6,6f

phosphorylation of, 39

in thyroid hormone synthesis, 430 Tyrosine hydroxylase, phosphorylation of, 6

Udder, 505. See also Mammary gland

Ulcers, gastric, 335

Ultradian rhythms, 418

Umbilical blood vessels, 622,625

Ungated (leak) channels, 15, 15f

potassium ion, 16

Uniporters, 14

Unitary smooth muscle, 87-88

Unstirred water layer, 341,345

Upper airway

obstruction of, 635,636f

resistance of, 569, 572, 572f, 574

Upper motor neuron disease, 103-105

Upper motor neurons, 103, 103f Urea, 542

Urea recycling

in collecting ducts, 549-550, 550f

in hindgut, 383

in rumen, 373-374

Uremia, in heart failure, 288f, 289

Ureter, autonomic control of, 1411

Uric acid, 542

Urinalysis, in diabetic ketoacidosis, 454 Urinary bladder, autonomic control of, 14It Urinary tract infection, and sexual attraction in spayed bitch, 490-491

Urine

pH of, 559-561,560f, 56If

renal concentration/dilution of, 549,552

Uterine cervix, 492, 494, 497

Uterus

late gestational changes in, 496, 49? prostaglandin F,_fl production by, 493

Utricle, 120,120f, 122-123,124f, 125f

Vagal afferent nerves, 304

Vagal nucleus, dorsal, in regulation of reticulorumenal motility, 379-380

Vagal stimulation, of stomach, 317

Vagus nerve

and bronchoconstriction, 573, 573f

and respiratory regulation, 606

visceral innervation by, 139

Valves, cardiac. See Heart valves

Van t Hoff’s law, 11-12

Varicosities, of gut wall, 301,3O3f

Vasa deferentia, 519

Vasa recta, 550

countercurrent mechanism in, 551-552, 552f

Vasa vasorum, 583

Vascular compliance

blood vessel types and, 243-244,244f, 255-256

in pulmonary system, 247, 249

and pulse pressure, 25If, 252

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), 53-54 Vascular endothelium, tumor growth and, 53-54 Vascular permeability, in tumors, 53-54

Vascular resistance, 244-247,245f

arterioles and, 245, 245f

and blood flow, 247. 248f, 267

definition of, 244

intrinsic and extrinsic control mechanisms of, 267-268

local control of, 268-271,268f, 269f, 270f

of pulmonary circulation, 247, 249, 580-581, 580f,581f

total peripheral, 246-247

in blood pressure regulation, 277

and pulse pressure, 25If, 252

Vascular shunts, right-to-left, 591-592, 591f, 608-609

Vascular smooth muscle, calcium channel blockers and,88

Vascular system. See Cardiovascular system;

Circulatory system

Vascular tone, 581

Vasculature. See Blood vessels

Vasculogenesis, in tumor growth, 53 Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

as gut neurocrine, 301

in lactogenesis, 507

and prolactin secretion, 472

Vasoconstriction

α adrenergic activation of, 277-278

in heart failure, 289

hypoxic, 249, 582-583, 582f, 584

peripheral, in heat conservation, 642f, 647 of pulmonary arteries, 249, 581-583, 582f, 582t

and pulse pressure, 251 f, 252

and vascular resistance, 245

Vasodilation

blood flow and, 245, 246f

cholinergic activation of, 279

peripheral, in heat dissipation, 642,647 Vasopressin, 470. See also Antidiuretic hormone

(Al)H, vasopressin)

Vasovagal syncope, 277, 284, 284f

VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), 53-54 Veins

as blood reservoir, 185, I85f

general layout of. 183-184, I83f

pulmonary, 579

walls of. 255-256, 256f

Venoconstriction, in blood pressure regulation.

278,278t, 291

Venous drainage, of intestines, 355-356, 355f Venous return, obstruction of

and edema formation, 262-263,262f Ventilation, 567-576

in acid-base regulation, 556-557,630-631,633-634 airway diameter and, 572-575, 573f

alveolar ventilation/perfusion ratio and, 590,591 f alveolar vs. dead-space, 568, 568f

collateral, 575

control of, 603-609

airway receptors and, 605-606

anesthesia and, 609

central, 604-605,604f, 607-608» 607f chemoreceptors and, 604,606-608, 607f during exercise, 608

gas exchange demands and, 603-604.604f

at high altitude, 608

pulmonary receptors and, 605

decreased, in brachycephalic syndrome, 592-593 disorders of, 575-576 distribution of, 574f, 575

energy requirements of, 567, 568-569, 569f frictional resistance to airflow and. 569,570f, 572-575,572f, 573f

gait and, 569, 569f, 608

lung elasticity and, 569-571, 570f terminology of, 567-568

Ventilation-perfusion mismatching, 249, 249f, 590-591, 59lf

Ventral corticospinal tract, 112

Ventricles (brain)

anatomy of, 155, 155f

and CSF production, 156

relationship to CSF and meninges, I55f Ventricles (cardiac)

blood flow to, during cardiac cycle, 271-272, 27 If contraction of, 194

depolarization/repolarization of, on ECG, 216-217, 216f

hypertrophy of. See Ventricular hypertrophy infarction of. See Myocardial infarction pressures in, 228

Ventricular compliance, 230, 23If

Ventricular contractility

autonomic regulation of, 205-206 depressed. See Heart failure end-diastolic volume and, 231,231 f

Ventricular contractions, premature, 220-221,220f Ventricular diastole, 226-228

Ventricular end-diastolic volume, 227 determinants of, 229-231,230f and stroke volume, 229-231, 229f ventricular contractility and, 231,23If

Ventricular end-systolic volume, 227

Ventricular fibrillation, 208, 222, 223f

Ventricular function curves, 229, 229f

in heart failure, 287f, 288-289

Ventricular hypertrophy

cardiac defects and, 235-236, 238-239

eccentric, 223

left, 236

right

electrocardiography of, 219,219f

pulmonic stenosis and, 238-239

Ventricular preload, 229-230

Ventricular premature beats, 207

Ventricular septal defect (VSD), 234, 237

Ventricular systole, 226-228

Ventricular tachycardia, 207, 221-222,223f

Ventriculus (gizzard), 323,324

Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs), 394-395, 394f, 398-399, 405

Vestibular nuclear complex, 110, 124

Vestibular syndrome, 119, 126

Vestibular system, 119-126 anatomy of, 120, 120f function of, 119 in head/eye movement coordination, 124, 125-126

receptor organs of, 120,121f, 122, 122f reflexes controlled by, 124-126 saccule, 122-123, I24f

semicircular ducts, 120-122, 122f, 123f symptoms of lesions in, 119 utricle, 122-123,124f, 125f

Vestibulocerebellum. 131, 132f, 133f

Vestibuloocular reflex, 125

Vestibulospinal tracts, 108, 109f, 110-111, 124 VFAs. See Volatile fatty acids (VFAs)

Villi, 339, 360

malabsorptive diarrhea and, 361,36If

VIP. SeeVasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)

Viruses, antigenic structures of, 654

Viscera

innervation of, 139, 140 temperature-sensitive receptors in, 645-646 Visceral afferent neurons, 61, 140, 301,304 Visceral smooth muscle, 87-88 Viscosity, of blood

hematocrit and, 189, 189f

Visual cortex, 151

Visual photopigments, 149

Visual system, 145-152. See also Eye; Retina diagnostic testing of, 142, 150, 152 photoreception and light transduction in, 149-150, 149f

signal processing in, 150

visual pathways of, 150-151, 151 f

Vitamin A, in colostrum, 507

Vitamin D

in calcium/phosphorus homeostasis, 461-462, 462f

and renal calcium reabsorption, 545-546 synthesis and metabolism of, 461,46If, 462 Vitamins, fat-soluble, 356

Vitreous humor, 146

VLDLs. See Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)

Volatile fatty acids (VFAs), 368-371 absorption of, 380-382, 38If, 382f, 386 chemical structures of, 370f as energy substrates, 371 production of, 368-370, 369f, 370b, 370f in hindgut, 386

proportions of, in rumen, 370,370f in ruminant gluconeogenesis, 406,406f

Voltage-dependent proteins, 4,5f

Voltage-gated channels, 15f, 16

Volume receptors, 282. See also Atrial volume receptor reflex

Voluntary movement

brainstem motor pathways in, 108, 109, 109f, 111

corticospinal tract in, 111-113,112f, 113f, 115-116

motor cortices and, 113-115

vs. postural muscle activity, 107

spinal cord in, 108

Vomit center, 319

Vomiting

and metabolic alkalosis, 633

vestibular system and, 319

VSD (ventricular septal defect), 234,237 Vulva, 468

Waste products, cardiovascular transport of, 180

Water

aquaporin channels for, 15,553

bulk flow of, in capillaries, 258-262 cardiovascular transport of, 180

Cnteroqie secretion of, 353-354, 354f evaporation of, heat loss and, 640,644-645, 647

hindgut flux of, 386. 386f

intestinal absorption of, 349, 352-353, 354-355, 355f

Teticulorumenal flux of, 378-379

Water balance, 548-554

antidiuretic hormone and, 552-553, 552f, 553f

countercurrent mechanism and, 550-552, 55If, 552f

proximal tubule reabsorption and, 548-549 renal medullary osmolality adaptation and, 553

renal solute reabsorption and, 549-550,549f sodium chloride absorption and, 552 urine concentrating ability and, 549

Water deprivation test, modified, 422

Water diuresis, glucocorticoids and, 440

Water retention

antidiuretic hormone and, 420f, 421

in heart failure, 288-289

Weight, metabolic rate and, 641,64If

Whey, 512

White blood cell count, differential, 188

White blood cells. See Leukoales

White muscle, 86

Whitten effect, 489,490

Yellow star thistle poisoning, 116-117 Young-Helmholtz theory, 150

Z disk, 82

Zinc fingers, of transcription factors, 30

Zona fasciculata, 437

Zona glomerulosa, 437

Zona pellucida, 472

Zona reticularis, 437

Zone of thermoneutrality, 646,646f

Zonula occludens, 539, 539f

Zymogen granules, 332

Zymogens, 331,344,345f

3. The hypertonic medullary interstitium is generated in large part by:

a. Active transport of Na⁺ by the straight portion of the proximal tubule

b. Active reabsorption of Na^{3 4} by the water-impermeable, ascending thin limb of Henle’s loop

c. Active reabsorption of Na⁺ by the water-impermeable, thick ascending limb of Henle’s loop

d. Increase in water channels in the apical plasma membrane of collecting duct cells under the influence of vasopressin

e. Enhanced urea permeability of the ascending thin limb of Henle’s loop under the influence of vasopressin

3. Which of the following factors does not contribute to efficient acid excretion (bicarbonate reabsorption) by the renal tubules?

a. Primary active transport of bicarbonate

b. Intraluminal buffering by bicarbonate

c. Intraluminal buffering by ammonia and phosphate

d. Intracellular and membrane-associated carbonic anhydrase

e. Transmembrane proton transport by the Na7H⁺ exchanger, H^{3 4}-ATPase pump, and H⁴₁K^f-ATPase pump

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Source: Cunningham J.G., Klein B.G.. Textbook of Veterinary Physiology. Elsevier Health Sciences,2007. — 720 р.. 2007

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