Index

A

AANAT and ASMT gene expression, 186 Abdominal gland, see Pancreas

Abiotic environmental stress, 234 Abomasum, 147-149

Absolute refractory period, 66, 78

Absorbent colon, 145

Absorption, 6, 144

in large intestine, 145

mechanisms of, 144

of nutrients, 139

in small intestine, 144-145 volatile fatty acids formation and, 152

AC, see Adenylate cyclase

Accessory sex glands, 195

Acclimation and acclimatisation, 234, 235, 240

ACE, see Angiotensin-converting enzyme Acetate, 153

Acetylcholine (ACh), 26, 28, 60-61, 68, 80, 86

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), 60, 87 Acetyl-CoA synthetase, 12

ACh, see Acetylcholine

AChE, see Acetylcholinesterase

Acid-base balance, 168, 177

Acid hydrolases, 11

Acquired heart diseases, 34

Acquired immunity, 42-44

ACTH, see Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Actin

molecular arrangement of, 58 and myosin filaments, 56-57

Action potentials, 73, 74, 77, 78

conduction speed of, 78

falling phase of, 77 propagation of, 78 refractory period, 78 rising phase of, 77

Active transport, 75, 174

Activin, 190

Activity theory, 250

Actomycin, 17

Adaptation

and adaptability, 235-236

environmental conditions and adaptive mechanism, 236

process, 237

strategies, 240

Adenohypophysis, 214

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 61-62

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 12, 247

in myosin cross-bridge cycle and muscle contraction, 61

Adenylate cyclase (AC), 87

Adenylyl cyclase, 125

Adequate anaesthesia, 260

ADH, see Antidiuretic hormone

Adherens junctions (AJ), 20

Adipocytes, 215

Adiponectin, 215

Adipose tissue, 215, 229

ADP, see Adenosine diphosphate

Adrenal gland, 216

Adrenaline, see Epinephrine

Adrenaline apnoea, 166

Adrenergic receptors, 82-84 alpha-adrenergic receptors, 83 beta-adrenergic receptors, 84

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 183 Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), 246 Afferent impulses, from respiratory muscles, 165

After-loaded condition, 65-66

Agalactia, 217

AGEs, see Advanced glycation end products Agglutination, 46

Aging

anatomical changes, 243

anti-aging and longevity, 251-252 autoimmune theory, 246

balance of antioxidants and oxidative stress in, 248

biological, 242, 243 caloric restriction theory, 249 cellular dysfunctions in, 247 cellular senescence, 248-250 cross-linkage theory, 246-247 death hormone theory (DECO), 249 defined, 242

degenerative changes, 243-244 errors and repairs theory, 246 external environmental agents of, 250 general wear-and-tear theory, 244 genetic control theory, 245 Hayflick limit theory, 249 internal environment of, 251 maximum life span and life expectancy, 243-244

mechanisms of, 245

mitochondrial free radical theory, 247 mitochondrial genome damage, 249 model organisms of, 244 neuroendocrine theory, 244-245 order to disorder theory, 249 oxidative damage, 247-248 physiological changes, 242-243 psychosociological theory, 249-250 rate of living theory, 249 telomere shortening, 249 theories of, 244-247

thymic stimulating theory, 249 waste accumulation theory, 245-246 Agranular cells, 172

Agranulocytes, 50, 53

AJ, see Adherens junctions

Albumin, 30, 141, 173

Alkali reserve, 162

Allen's rule (1877), 235

Allergy and hypersensitivity, 48-49 Allometric growth, 225

Alpha-adrenergic receptors, 83

α1 receptors, 83

α2 receptors, 83

Alpha motor neurons, 67, 89, 91

Alveolar air, 158

Alveolar cells, 214, 215

Alveolar ducts, 212

Alveolar phagocytes, 155

Alveoli, 212

Alzheimer's disease, 40

Amadori products, 246

AMH hormone, 190

Amine hormones, 180

Amino acids, reabsorption of, 174

Aminopeptidase, 181

Amino-terminal domain (NTD), 182 Ammonia, 153, 175

AMPA receptors (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5- methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors), 85

Amphibious eyes, 95

Ampulla, 111, 202

Ampulla of ductus deferens, 195

Amyloid-β (Aβ), 40

Anaemic hypoxia, 167

Anaesthesia and pain relief, 260-261

Anaphylaxis, 48

Anatomical Dissertation Upon the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals (Harvey), 4

Androgen-binding protein, 197 Angiography, 35

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), 26,

28, 172

Angiotensin II, 26, 28, 29, 172

Animal Ethics Committee, 257

Animal experiments, 260-262 anaesthesia and pain relief, 260-261 immobilisation of animal, 261 injections, 261

preparation of animal for experiment, 261 regulations, in India, 254

rules on, 258-259

types of operation, 262

Animal eyes, types of, 93-94

Animal models, 254-257

Animal physiology, see Physiology; Systemic physiology

Animal thermotolerance, 237-239

Anisocytosis, 50

Anosmia, 126

ANP, see Atrial natriuretic peptide

ANS, see Autonomic nervous system

Anti-aging and longevity, 251-252 antioxidants, 251

calorie restriction and longevity, 251 rapamycin, 252

sirtuins, 251

stem cells, 252

Antibodies, 30, 44-45

constant region, 44

direct and complement system, 46-48 mode of action, 46-48

structure, 44-45 variable region, 44-45

Anticoagulation, 33

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), 178, 185, 186 Antigen-presenting cells (APCs), 45-46 Antigens and their characteristics, 41-42 Antioxidants, 251

Antithrombin III, 33

Aortic arch, 165

Aortic valve, 24

APC, see Apneustic centre

APCs, see Antigen-presenting cells

Apical domain, 17

Apnea, 157

Apneustic centre (APC), 163

Apoferritin, 145

Apolipoprotein E isoforms, 40

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) channels, 40

Aristotle, 253

Arrhythmia, 34

Arterial blood, 158

Arteries, 24

Arterioles, 24

Artificial passive immunity, 48

ASD, see Atrial septal defect

Association cortical area, 119

Astrocytes, 70

ATP, see Adenosine triphosphate

ATPase enzyme, 57

Atria, 24

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), 27, 28, 191 Atrial septal defect (ASD), 34

Atrioventricular (AV) node, 25-26

Atrioventricular valves, 24, 25

Auditory ossicles, 112

Auditory system

cochlear structure and function, 111-112, 113 external auditory meatus, 109 mechanism of hearing, 112-113

ossicles, 110

physiology of, 109-113

pinna, 109

Round Window, 110-111 sound-conducting apparatus, 109-111 sound-perceiving apparatus, 111-112 sound receiving apparatus, 109 structural components of external/middle/ inner ear, 110-112

tympanic membrane, 110

vestibular structure and function, 111, 112

Auerbach’s plexus, 140

Auricle, 109

Autoimmune theory of aging, 246

Autonomic nervous system (ANS), 26, 68, 91 Autonomic reflexes, 88, 91

Autoradiography technique, 101 Autoregulation, 29, 172

Auxiliary visual areas, role of, 101

Axon hillock, 69, 78

Axons, 68, 98

B

Bacterial lipoproteins, 46 Baroceptors, 115

Baroreceptor reflex, 26, 91

Bartholomew, George, 4

Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 231

Basket cells, 211

Basolateral domain, 17

Basophils, 51-53

BBB, see Blood-brain barrier

B cells, 43-44

Bergmann’s rule (1847), 235 Beta-adrenergic receptors, 84

β1 receptors, 84

β2 receptors, 84

β3 receptors, 84

Beta-oxidation, 11

BHT, see Butylated hydroxytoluene Bicarbonate buffer system, 177

Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-), 31, 32 Bicarbonates, reabsorption of, 174

Bicaudal-C (Bicc1), 20

Biceps brachii muscle, 5

Bile, 142-143

Bile secretion, regulation of, 143 Binocularity, in visual cortex neurons, 101 Bioclimatology, 234

Biological aging, 242, 243

Biological clock, 186

Biological rhythms, 236-237

Bipolar neurons, 69-70

Bjorksten, Johan, 246

Blastocoelic cavity, 227

Blastocyst cavity, 17

Blastocyst formation, 18

Blastokinin, 205

Blastomeres, 17, 226

Blastula, 18

Blood

carriage and transfer of O₂ by, 159

cell production, 130 coagulation cascade (clotting), 32-33 components, 25, 30-31, 51, 52 composition, in animals, 52 defense, 52

formation of, 52-53

functions, 25, 31-32, 51

pH, 51

in pulmonary circulation, 157

regulation, 51

to testicles, 196

tests, 35

transportation, 51

volume, 26-27

Blood-brain barrier (BBB), 72-73

Blood-CSF barrier

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 72 choroid epithelial cells, 72

Blood flow regulation

local control mechanisms

autoregulation, 29 endothelial regulation, 29 metabolic regulation, 29

systemic control mechanisms hormonal regulation, 29 neural regulation, 29

Blood pressure measurement, 35

Blood pressure regulation, 23, 168

factors affecting, 26-27 mechanisms of, 26

Blood supply, 95

for cow’s udder, 209-210

to kidney, 170, 171

maternal, 227

Blood vessels

arteries, 24

capillaries, 24-25

and their function, 24

veins, 24

B lymphocytes, 42-45

BMP, see Bone morphogenic protein

BMR, see Basal metabolic rate

BNP, see Brain/B-type natriuretic

peptide

Body discriminative touch and proprioception, 120-121

Body measurements, 226

Body physiology/reproduction/production, impact of changing environment on, 238

Bone composition, 131-132

Bone marrow, 50, 131

Bone matrix, 131

Bone morphogenic protein (BMP), 20

Bones, 229

adaptations for locomotion, 136 age and developmental stage, 135 blood cell production, 130 clinical applications, 136-137 comparative bone physiology, 131, 135-136 composition of, 131-132, 135

definition of, 130, 131

density and shape, 133-134

development, 131, 132 diagnosis and management of diseases, 136 diseases and disorders, 131, 134

elasticity, 133

embryonic bone formation, 132 exercise and physical activity, 135 facilitation of movement, 130 factors affecting bone health, 131, 135 fractures and healing process, 135 future directions, 137

genetics, 135

growth in juveniles, 132

growth pattern and adaptations, 135-136 hormonal balance, 135

hormonal regulation of bone remodeling,

133

importance of, 130

inorganic components, 132

macroscopic structure, 130 mechanical properties, 131, 133-134 microscopic structure, 130-131 mineral storage and homeostasis, 130 muscle attachment, 130

nutrition, 135

nutritional management, 136-137

organic components, 131-132

orthopedic surgery and rehabilitation, 136 osteoarthritis, 134, 136

osteoblasts and bone formation, 133 osteoclasts and bone resorption, 132-133 osteoporosis, 134, 136

pathophysiology of, 130-137

preventive medicine and wellness care, 137 protection of vital organs, 130 remodeling, 131-133, 136

rickets and osteomalacia, 134, 136-137 strength, 133

structural support, 130

structure overview, 130-131 terminologies and key words, 131 tissue, composition of, 135 toughness, 133

variation in bone structure, 135

water, 132

Wolff’s Law, 134

Boutons en passage, 86 -87

Bowman, William, 168

Bowman capsule, 170, 171, 173

Bowman’s glands, 123

Brain, glymphatic system in, 40

Brain/B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), 191 Branching morphogenesis, 20

Breathing/ventilation, 6

Bronchi, 154

Brown, Robert, 13

Brown fat, 229

Brunner’s glands, 143

Bulbospongiosus muscle, 196 Bulbourethral glands, 195 Bulbus glandis, 195 Bundle of His, 26

Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), 251 Butyrate, 152

C

C1 enzymes, 47

C5b6789, 47

CA, see Corpus albicans

Cadherins, 20

Calcitonin, 133

Calcium, 20, 135

Calcium ions (Ca2+), 60, 61, 74, 145, 186

Calcium pumps, 75

Caloric restriction

and longevity, 251 theory, 249 cAMP, see Cyclic adenosine monophosphate Cancellous/trabecular bone, 130

Canines, 127

Cannulation, 262

Capillaries, 24-25 Capillary bulbs, 38

Capsular pressure, 173

Carbohydrates, 9

Carbon dioxide, 6, 153

in arterial blood, 161 carriage of tidal CO2, 161 inside RBCs, 161 tension, 161 tidal volume of CO2, 161 transport, 31 volume (? cc/100 ml blood), 161

Carbonic acids, 152

Carboxypeptidase, 142, 181

Cardiac catheterization and angiography,

35-36

Cardiac cycle electrical activity of the heart, 25-26 phases of, 25

Cardiac muscles, 55 stretch of, 27 tissue, 5

Cardiac output (CO) and stroke volume (SV), 27

blood flow regulation, 28-30 definition and calculation, 27 regulation of cardiac output Frank-Starling mechanism, 27 hormonal regulation, 28 parasympathetic regulation, 27-28 sympathetic regulation, 27

Cardiac ultrasound, see Echocardiography

Cardiovascular diseases

acquired heart diseases, 34 component/associated diseases, 36 congenital heart diseases, 34

Cardiovascular system, 6 anatomy of, 23-25 blood, components/functions of, 25, 30-31 blood pressure regulation, 26-27 blood vessels, 24-25 cardiac cycle, 25-26 cardiac output (CO) and stroke volume (SV), 27-30 cardiovascular diseases, 34-36

clinical assessment of cardiovascular function, 35-36

dysfunction of, 23 heart, 23-24 hemostasis and blood coagulation, 32-33 importance of cardiovascular function, 23

Carotid body and aortic body, 165

Carotid sinus, 165

Catalase, 11

Catch up growth, 225

Catecholamines, 27-29

Cat retina

architecture, 96-97

physiology, 97-98

Cats, accommodation in, 96

Cattle, gustatory organ of, 128

Caudal aorta, 209

Caudal medulla, 120

CBC, see Complete blood count

CCK, see Cholecystokinin

CD4+ T cells, 43

CD8+ T cells, 43

Cell and molecular physiology, 5

Cell biology, 1

Cell compaction ensues, 17

Cell division, 50

Cell-mediated immunity, 43, 46

Cell membrane, 9, 73

Cells

cleavage of, 226 growth of, 225 of nervous system, 68

Cellular defense, 212-213

Cellular physiology, 1

Cellular portion, 50

Cellular senescence, 248-250

Cellular structure and functions

cell membrane, 9

cell structure, 10 centrosome (centrioles), 12 cytoplasm, 9-10 cytoskeleton, 13

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 14-15 endoplasmic reticulum, 10-11

Golgi apparatus, 11 lysosomes, 11 mitochondria, 12 nucleus, 13-14 peroxisomes, 11 ribosomes, 13 secretory vesicles, 12 structure of cell, 9

Cellulose hydrolysis, 151

Central lacteal, 144

Central nervous system (CNS), 67, 141 control of gustation, 128, 129 extracellular environment to, 72 loss in, 243 neurotransmitters of, 79, 81

Centrosome (centrioles), 12

Centrosphere, 12

Cerebral cortex, 165-166

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), 40, 70, 72, 248 Cervical mucus, 205

Cervix, 202, 205

β-Chains of chorionic gonadotropins (βCG),

189

Chalone, 232

Chambers and valves, of heart, 23-24

Chemical synapses, 79

Chemokines, 48

Chemoreceptors, 89, 115

Chemotaxis, 47

Chloralose, 261

Chloramphenicol, 50

Chloride ions (Cl-), 74

Chloride shift, 161-162

Cholecystokinin (CCK), 140, 188 Cholesterol, 181

Cholinergic receptors, 82-83

Chondrocytes (cartilage cells), 132

Chorda tympani nerve, 129

Chordin, 20

Chorionic gonadotropins, 189

Chorionic somatomammotropin, 189

Choroid epithelial cells, 72

Chromatin, 14

Chromophils, 182

Chromophobes, 182

Chromosomes, 14, 15

Chronaxie, 63-64

Chronic mitral valve disease, see Chronic valvular disease

Chronic valvular disease, 34

Chyme, 142

Chymotrypsin, 142

Ciliary photoreceptors, 94

Ciliated cells, 202

Circadian rhythm, 236

Circulatory system

reflexes from, 165; see also Cardiovascular system

Cistern, 212

Cisternae, 11

Cleaving cells, 226-227

Clinical assessment of cardiovascular function diagnostic tests

blood pressure measurement, 35 blood tests, 35

cardiac catheterization and angiography, 35-36 echocardiography (cardiac ultrasound), 35

electrocardiogram (ECG), 35 exercise tolerance testing, 35 Holter monitoring, 35 thoracic radiography (X-rays), 35 physical examination

auscultation, 35

inspection, 35

palpation, 35

Clinical physiology, 6

CLoF, see Clusters of follicles

Closure and epiphyseal line formation, 132 Clusters of follicles (CLoF), 199

CNP, see C-type natriuretic peptide

CNS, see Central nervous system Coactivation, 66

Coc, see Cumulus oophorous oocyte complex Cochlear portion, 111

Cochlear structure and function, 111-112 Cold-blooded animals, 237-238

Collagen, 131-132

accumulation of, 243

fibers, 133

Colloidal osmotic pressure, 173

Colonyforming unit-erythrocyte (CFU-E) cells, 191

Colostrum, 218

Committee for the Purpose of Control & Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA), 254

Compact bone, 130

Comparative bone physiology, 131, 135-136

Comparative physiology, 7

Compensatory growth, 225

Competence, 19

Complete blood count (CBC), 35

Complex eyes, 94

Compound eyes, 93

Compressive strength, 133

Concentration gradients, 74

Conditioned reflexes, 166

Conduction speed, of action potential, 78

Congenital heart diseases, 34

Conjunctiva, 93

Connective tissues, 5

Constant region (Fc region), 44

Constrictions, 212

Continuity theory, 250

Contractile proteins, 57-58

Cornea, 93

Corneoscleral junction, 93

Corona radiata, 200

Coronary circulation, 24

Corpus albicans (CA), 199

Corpus cavernosum, 195, 211

Corpus spongiosum, 195

Cortex of lymph node, 39

Cortical areas for pain sensation, 119

Cortical bone, see Compact bone

Cortical cells, 100

Cortical collecting ducts, 171

Cortical granules, 202

Cortical nephrons, 171

Corticosteroids, 231

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 183

Cortisol, 218

Co-transport, 174

Cotyledons, 204

Cough reflex, 92, 165

Countercurrent exchanger system, 176

Countercurrent heat exchange, 3

Countercurrent multiplier system,

175-176

Counter-transport, 174

Coupling, 133

Cow hypocalcemia, 219

Cowperglands, 195

CPCSEA, see Committee for the Purpose of Control & Supervision of Experiments on Animals

Cranial nerves, 122, 129

Creatine phosphate, 62

Cremaster muscle, 196

CRH, see Corticotropin-releasing hormone

CRISPR-Cas9 system, 258

Cristae, 12, 111

Cross-linkage theory of aging, 246-247

CSF, see Cerebrospinal fluid

C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), 191

Cumulus oophorous oocyte complex (Coc),

200

Cumulus oophorus, 201-202

Cuneate nucleus neuron, 120

Cushny, Arthur, 168

Cutaneous receptors, 115-117

mechanism of action, 116

of somatosensory system, 116

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 87, 125, 183, 185

CYP11A1, 181

CYP17A1, 189

Cytochrome P450 side-chain cleavage enzyme (CYP11A1), 183

Cytokines, 48

Cytolytic complex, 47 Cytoplasm, 9-10, 14 Cytoplasmic organelles, 10

Cytoskeleton, 13

Cytosol, 9 Cytotoxic T cells, 43

D

DA, see Dopamine

DAG, see Diacylglycerol

DCM, see Dilated cardiomyopathy Dead space (DS), 157-158

Death hormone theory (DECO), 249

DECO, see Death hormone theory

Deep sensations, 115

Deflation during eupnoea, mechanism of, 164 Deflation reflex, 164

Degenerative valve disease, 34 Deglutition, 141

Degree of marbling, 229

Denaturation, 246

Dendrites, 69

Dendritic cells, 45

Dendritic spines, 69

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 14-15

DNA-binding domain (DBD), 182 structure of, 15

Desmin, 59

Desmosomes, 20

Detoxification, 11

Developmental horizons, 227 Developmental physiology, 7

early prenatal development, 16 factors responsible for, 16-17

prenatal developmental changes

at cellular level, 17-20

cross section of early embryo, 18 events of early embryonic development, 18

maternal to zygote transition, 20 molecular and biochemical events, 19-20

DEXA, see Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry Diabetes mellitus, 175

Diacylglycerol (DAG), 128, 186 Diastole phase, of cardiac cycle, 25

Dictyate stage, 201

Dietary recommendations, at risk of bone diseases, 136-137

Differential growth, 225

Diffusion, 75, 144

Digestive system, 6

absorption, 144-145

bile, 142-143

GIT, see Gastrointestinal tract large intestine, secretions in, 143-144 oxyntic glands, 142

pancreatic secretions, 142

physiology of, 139-145 pyloric glands, 142

regulation of bile secretion, 143 of ruminants, see Ruminant digestive system

saliva composition and major functions, 141-142

small intestine, secretions of, 143 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol, 168

Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), 34

Dilman, Vladimir, 244

Diploid cells, 14

Disaccharides, 145

Disengagement theory, 250

Dissociation curve, 160

Distal tubule, 171

DNA, see Deoxyribonucleic acid

Dopamine (DA), 80

Drosophila, 247

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA),

136

Duct system of female, 202

Ductus deferens, 194-195

Duetoplasm, 201

Duodenum, 145

Dust cells, 155

Dysbiosis, 220

Dyspnea, 156

E

Eardrum, 110

Eardrum activation, 112

Early diastole, 25

Early prenatal development, 16-17

EC, see Expiratory centre

ECF, see Extracellular fluid

ECG, see Electrocardiogram; Equine chorionic

gonadotropin

Echocardiography (cardiac ultrasound), 35 Eclampsia, see Puerperal tetany

Ecological physiology, 1, 4

Ecophysiology, 7

Ectoderm, 18, 227

Ectodermal cells, 227

Ectoplasm, 10

Ectotherms, 3

ED50, 260

EECs, see Enteroendocrine cells

Effector muscle, 89

Effector organs, 2, 82, 89

Efferent fibres, 90

Efferent neuron, 89

Efferent renal sympathetic nerve activity (ERSNA), 170

Efflux transporters, 73

EGF, see Epidermal growth factor

Elastic deformation, 133

Electrical activity of the heart atrioventricular node (AV node), 25-26 bundle of His and Purkinje fibers, 26 electrocardiogram (ECG), 26 sinoatrial node (SA node), 25

Electrical synapses, 79

Electric stimulators, 262

Electrocardiogram (ECG), 26, 35 Electroceptors, 115

Electrochemical basis of neuronal function, 73-74

Electrochemical gradient, in neurons, 74-78 Electrodes, implantation of, 262

Electrolyte balance, 168

Electrolyte imbalance, pathophysiology of, 178

Electrolytes, 30, 141

Electrostatic forces, 74 action potential, 77 graded potential, 76-77 in neurons, 76-78 resting membrane potential, 76

Embryogenesis, 16

Embryonic bone formation, 132

Embryonic development, 16

Embryonic disc, 227

Embryonic period, 16

Endocannabinoids, 80 Endocardiosis, 34

Endochondral ossification, 132

Endocrine function, 168

Endocrine glands, 179

Endocrine system, 5, 6, 179-191 Endoderm, 18, 227

Endolymph, 111

Endometrial cups, 189

Endometrial glands, 203

Endometrium, 17

Endomysium, 55

Endoplasm, 10

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 10-11

functions, 10-11

types of, 10

Endorphins, 80

Endothelial cells, 72, 73

Endothelial regulation, 29

Endothelin-1, 29

Endotherms, 3

ENS, see Enteric nervous system

Enteric nervous system (ENS), 91, 140 Enterocytes, 143

Enteroendocrine cells (EECs), 187 Enteroglucagon, 140

Enterokinase, 142

Environmental physiology, 6-7, 234-241

Environmental stress, 234-236

Environment and shelter management, physical modification of, 239-240

Enzymatic/microbial digestion, 139

EOMES, see Eomesodermine or T-box brain protein 2

Eomesodermine or T-box brain protein 2 (EOMES), 20

Eosinophils, 51-53

Ependymal cells, 70

Epiblast (Epi), 18

Epidermal growth factor (EGF), 214, 231-232 Epididymis, 194

Epigenetic regulation of lactation, 220-221 Epinephrine, 2, 27-29, 68, 80, 83, 199 Epiphyseal growth plate, 132

Epithelial cells, 212, 217

EPO, see Erythropoietin

EPOR, see Erythropoietin receptors

Equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG), 189

ER, see Endoplasmic reticulum

Erectile tissue, 195

Erikson, Erik H., 250

Errors and repairs theory, 246

ERSNA, see Efferent renal sympathetic nerve activity

Eructation, 148, 150

Erythrocytes (red blood cells), 25, 30-31,

50-53

Erythropoiesis, 31, 50, 53

Erythropoietin (EPO), 53, 191, 232

Erythropoietin receptors (EPOR), 191 Escherichia coli, 123

Esophagus, 150 17β-Estradiol, 189

Estrogen, 135, 189, 190, 199, 203, 214, 215 Eupnea, 156

Eupnoea, 164

Evolutionary physiology, 7

Excitability curve, 63-65

Excitatory neurotransmitters, 79, 81 Excitatory postsynaptic graded potentials (EPSPs), 76, 125

Excretion and osmoregulation, 178

Excretory system

concentration of urine, 175 countercurrent mechanism, 175-176 glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 173 glomerulotubular balance, 175 historical perspectives of renal physiology, 168

juxtaglomerular apparatus, 172 medullary washout, 176 physiology of, 168-178

regulation of renal blood flow, 172-173 renal system, 169

substances secreted in segments of renal tubules, 175

transport maximum (TM), 175 ureters/urinary bladder/urethra, 170 water balance, 176-178; see also Kidney; Reabsorption

Exercise and physical activity, 135

Exercise prescription, 137

Exercise tolerance testing, 35

Exhalation, 155

Exocrine glands, 179

Exosomes, 221

Experimental physiology, 253-263

animal experiments, 260-262

animal models, 254-257 background and impact, 253-254 experiments on laboratory small/large animals, 258

general design of experimental surgery, 262-263

overview of current scenario, 253 regulations of animal experimentation, 254 rules of experiments on animals, 258-259 Experimental surgery, general design of, 262-263

EX-PHARM Blank CD, 254

Expiration, 155

Expiratory centre (EC), 163

Expiratory pause, 155

Expiratory reserve volume, 157

Expired air, 159

Extensor reflex, 91

External auditory canal/ear canal, 109

External auditory meatus, 109

External expiration, 6

External genitalia, 206 External/pulmonary respiration, 154

Exteroceptors, 115

Extracellular fluid (ECF), 9, 177

Extracellular oedema, 178

Extrafusal fibers, 117

Extraglomerular mesangial cells, 172 Extramedullary hematopoiesis, 50 Extra-ocular muscles, 94

Extrinsic muscles, 94

Extrinsic pathway, 33

Eyes, see Visual system

Ezrin (cytovillin), 20

F

Face discriminative touch and proprioception,

121

Facilitated diffusion, 75

F-actin molecule, 57, 58

Falling phase of action potential, 77-78

Fallopian tubes, 202-203

Farm animals (FAs), experiments on, 258

Fast-twitch (Type II) muscle fibres, 63

Fat pad, in mammary gland, 214-215

Fats, 229

“Fat streak”, 211

Fatty acid derivatives, 180

Fatty acids, 11

FDPs, see Fibrin degradation products

Feedback inhibitor hormone (FIL), 216

Feedback loops

negative, 2

positive, 2-3

Feedback mechanisms, 179

Feedlot bloat, 150

Female reproductive system

cervix, 205

duct system of female, 202

external genitalia, 206 follicular fluid, 200 folliculogenesis, 200-201 oogenesis, 201

organs in goat and dog, 198

ovarian follicles, 199-200

ovary, 198-199

oviduct/fallopian tube, 202-203 ovum/egg, 201-202 physiology of, 198-206

uterus, 203-205

vagina, 205-206

Fenn effect, 61

Ferguson’s reflex, 186

Fermentative digestion, in rumen, 150

Fernel, Jean, 4

Fertilization, 16

Fertilized oocyte, 16

Fetal growth, 227-228

Fetal hormones, 229

Fetal period, 16

Fetus, 3

FF, see Filtration fraction

FGF signals, see Fibroblast growth factor signals

Fibrin degradation products (FDPs), 33 Fibrinogen, 30

Fibrinolysis, 33

Fibrobacter succinogenes, 151

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signals,

19, 20

Fibroblasts, 200

Fibrocytes, 200

Fibroelastic penis, 195

“Fight or flight” response, 68

FIL, see Feedback inhibitor hormone

Fila olfactoria, 124, 125

Filtration fraction (FF), 173

Fimbriae, 202

Flagellin, 46

Flexor reflex, 91

Fluid balance, 32

“Folds of Kerckring”, 144

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), 185, 190, 193, 197, 201, 214

Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR),

185

Follicular cells, 184

Follicular fluid, 200

Folliculogenesis, 200-201

antral to Graafian follicle development, 201

preantral to antral follicle development, 200-201

primordial to preantral follicle development, 200

Follistatin, 190

Forestomach, 147

Formed elements, 30

Fractures and healing process, 134, 136 Frank-Starling mechanism, 27, 65

Free fatty acids, 145 Free-loaded condition, 65 Free nerve endings, 116, 117

Frequency summation and tetanisation, 65 Fructose, 145

FSH, see Follicle-stimulating hormone

FSHR, see Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor

Functional residual capacity, 157 Furstenberg’s Rosettes, 212

G

GA, see Golgi apparatus

GABA, see Gamma-aminobutyric acid G-actin molecule, 57

Gag reflex, 89

Galactopoiesis, 213, 215-216

Galactose, 145

Galen, 168, 253-254

Galenus, Claudius, 4

Gametes, 14

Gametogenesis, 199

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), 79, 80, 102

Gamma loop mechanism, 118

Gamma motor neurons, 117

Gamma plate neurons, 117

Gamma trail motor neurons, 117

Ganglia, 67

Ganglion cells, 97

Gasping centre (GC), 163

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), 140 Gastric lipase, 142

Gastrin, 140, 188

Gastrointestinal hormones, 187, 188

Gastrointestinal reflexes, 91

Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)

blood flow, 139-140 endocrine activity of, 140 functional movements, 141 hormones, 187 motor control of, 141 neural control of, 140-141 physical features of, 139

Gastrulation, 18

GC, see Gasping centre

General anaesthesia, 260

General wear-and-tear theory, 244

Genes, 15

Genetic control theory, 245

Genetics, 228, 230

bone remodeling, 135

bone structure and density, 135 Geniculate cells, 99

Genome, 15

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS),

240

Genomic responses, during acclimation and genetic selection, 240

Genomic selection for lactation traits, 221 Germinal epithelial cells, 193, 196

Germinal layers/germ layers, 227

Germinal period, 16

GFR, see Glomerular filtration rate

GH, see Growth hormone Ghrelin, 140, 188

GIP, see Gastric inhibitory peptide

GIT, see Gastrointestinal tract

Gland cistern, 208, 212

Glands and classification, 179

Glia/Glial cells, see Neuroglia

Globulins, 30

Gloger’s rule (1833), 236

Glomerular capillaries, 170, 173

Glomerular filtration, 173

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR), 172, 173

Glomerular hydrostatic pressure, 173

Glomerular mesangial cells, 172 Glomerulotubular balance, 175 Glomerulus, 170, 171

Glucagon, 2, 188-189 Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), 188 Glucocorticoids, 215, 231

Gluconeogenesis, 189

Glucose, 2, 9

and nitrogenous products, 142 reabsorption of, 174

Glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), 174 Glutamate, 72

Glutamate receptors, 81, 84-85 Glycation, 246

Glycerol, 145

Glycerol phosphate acetyltransferase, 12

Glyceryl phosphoryl choline diesterase (GPC),

204

Glycine, 80, 81

Glycocalyx, 9

Glycogen, 2 Glycogenolysis, 188 Glycolipids, 9 Glycolytic pathway, 62 Glycoprotein hormones, 180 Glycoproteins, 9, 205 Glymphatic system, 38, 40 GnRH, see Gonadotropin-releasing hormone Golf, 125

Golgi, Camilo, 11

Golgi apparatus (GA), 11, 181

Golgi tendon organ, 117

Golgi tendon reflex, see Inverse stretch reflex Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH),

185, 193

Gonadotropins, 185, 199

Gonads, 189

GPC, see Glyceryl phosphoryl choline diesterase

GPCRs, see G-protein-coupled receptors G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 81, 82,

87, 181, 182

Graafian follicles, 199-200 Graded potentials, 76-77

Granular cells, 172

Granular endoplasmic reticulum, 10 Granulocytes, 50

Granulopoiesis, 53

Granulosa cells, 199-201

Greenhouse gases, 235

Growth, 224

of animals, factors influencing, 224 body cells on basis of, 225 body measurements, 226 of cells/tissues/organs, 225-226 epidermal growth factor (EGF), 231-232 growth curve, 232

measure of, 226 pattern, 225-226 phases of, 226-231 postnatal phase, see Postnatal growth prenatal phase, see Prenatal growth rate, in early stages of fetal development, 227

sigmoid growth curve phases, 232 types of, 225

Growth hormone (GH), 182-183, 215, 229, 231 Growth plate, 132

Growth retardation, 225

Gsx, 19

GTP, see Guanosine triphosphate Guanosine triphosphate (GTP), 125 Gubernaculum testis, 195

Gustatory system

central nervous system control of gustation, 128, 129

communications of stimulus by, 127-129 physiology of, 127-129

salivary influence in gustation, 127

Gut hormones, 187

GWAS, see Genome-wide association studies

H

Haematological system, physiology of, 50-53 Hageman factor (factor XII), 33

Hair cell stimulation, 113

Hair follicle, 116

Haploid cells, 14

Harrison’s reflex, 165

Harvey, William, 4

Haustrae, 139

Haversian canals, 130

Hayflick limit theory, 249 hCG, see Human chorionic gonadotropin HCM, see Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy Health screenings and wellness care, 137 Hearing, mechanism of, 112-113

eardrum activation, 112

hair cell stimulation, 113

inner ear activation, 112

liquid movement compensation, 113

nerve transmission, 113

organ of Corti stimulation, 112 ossicle transmission, 112

perilymph transmission, 112; see also Auditory system

Heart

chambers and valves, 23-24

coronary circulation, 24 electrical activity of, 25-26 as endocrine organ, 191 pulmonary and tricuspid valve, 24 structure, 23

Heart rate (HR), 27

Heartworm disease, 34

Heat-loss center, 2

Heat shock proteins (HSP), 182

Heat stress, 220 Hedgehog (Hg), 20

Helicotrema, 111 Helper T cells, 43 Hematopoiesis/hemopoiesis (formation of blood), 50-53, 130

Hemocytoblasts, 52

Hemoglobin, 25, 51

Hemopoietic function, 168 Hemostasis

and blood coagulation, 32-33 coagulation cascade, 32 platelet plug formation, 32 process, 32-33 regulation of, 33 vascular spasm, 32 Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, 177 Heredity/genetics, 228 Hering-Breuer reflexes, 92, 164 Hinges, 57 Hippocrates, 4, 253 Histamine, 49, 80 Histogenesis, 227 Histone, 14 Histotoxic hypoxia, 167 Hives, see Urticaria Hochachka, Peter, 4 Hodgkin, Alan, 4 Holter monitoring, 35 Homeostasis, 1-2, 130, 168, 234 Homeotherms, 237 Hormonal balance, 135 Hormonal regulation

of bone remodeling, 132-133

of cardiac output and stroke volume, 28 in modulating cardiac output and stroke volume, 27

systemic control mechanism, 29 Hormone-receptor complex (HRC), 179, 181, 182

Hormone response elements (HRE), 182 Hormones, 231

classification, 179-180

distribution, 23, 25 functions of, 181 galactopoietic, 216 gastrointestinal, 187, 188 increased milking frequency (IMF) and suckling intensity on, 217-218 male reproductive, 197 in mammary gland, 214 properties, 179 reproduction, 189 and signaling pathways, 221 synthesis of, 180-182

transport, 31; see also specific entries Hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL), 183 Hox gene, 19

HPA axis, see Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

HR, see Heart rate

HRC, see Hormone-receptor complex HRE, see Hormone response elements HSL, see Hormone-sensitive lipase HSP, see Heat shock proteins Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), 189 Humoral immunity, 42, 44, 46 Huxley, Andrew, 4 Hydrochloric acid, 142 Hydrogen peroxide, 11 Hydrogen sulfide, 153 Hydrolases, 11

Hydrostatic pressure, 173 Hydroxyapatite, 132 β-Hydroxybutyric acid, 152 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-HDA), 102 Hymen, 206

Hypercomplex cell, 100 Hyperopia, 95

Hyperplasia, 224, 227

Hyperpnea, 157

Hypersensitivity, allergy and, 48-49

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), 34

Hypertrophy, 225, 227, 229

Hypoblast, 17

Hypocalcemia, 219

Hyposmia, 126

Hypothalamic hormones, 182 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,

189, 244-245

Hypothalamus, 4, 166, 182

Hypothyroidism, 230, 231

Hypoxia, 53, 167

Hypoxic hypoxia, 167

I

IAP, see Intra-abdominal pressure

IC, see Inspiratory centre

ICF, see Intracellular fluid

ICM, see Inner Cell Mass

ICMR, see Indian Council of Medical Research

ICSH, see Interstitial cell stimulating hormone

IgA/IgD/IgE/IgG/IgM, 44, 48, 205, 212-213; see also Antibodies

IGF, see Insulin like growth factor

IL-8, 41

IMF, see Increased milking frequency

Immune function, 31

Immune response, 23, 25

Immunity, 41-49

acquired immunity, 42-44

allergy and hypersensitivity, 48-49 antibodies, 44-48

antigen-presenting cells (APCs), 45-46 antigens and their characteristics, 41-42 cytokines, 48

innate immunity, 41

passive immunity, 48

toll-like receptors (TLRs), 46

Immunogenicity, 42

Immunosenescence, 246

Impact and high-intensity exercise, 135

Increased milking frequency (IMF), 217-218

Incretin, 140

Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), 254

Indian National Science Academy (INSA), 254

Inductive interaction, 19

Inflation reflex, 164

Information relay, 89

Infrared thermography, 221

Infundibulum, 202

Inguinal rings, 195

Inhalation, 155

Inhibin, 190, 197

Inhibitory G-proteins, 182

Inhibitory neurotransmitters, 79

Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs), 76

Innate immunity, 41

Inner Cell Mass (ICM), 17-18, 227

Inner ear activation, 112

Innervation

of eye, 95

of kidney, 170

Inorganic phosphate (Pi), 62

Inositol triphosphate (IP3), 125, 128-129, 186

INSA, see Indian National Science Academy

Inspiration, 155

Inspiratory capacity, 157

Inspiratory centre (IC), 163

Inspiratory reserve volume, 157 Inspired air, 158

Insulin, 2, 188, 215

Insulin like growth factor (IGF), 20, 183, 214,

215

Insulin therapy, 257

Integration centre, in reflex arc, 89 Integumentary system, 5

Intercostal reflexes, 118

Interferons, 48

Interferon-Tau (IFN-τ), 18

Interleukins, 48

Intermediate filaments, 13 Internal respiration, 6, 154

Interneurons, 69

Interoceptors, 115

Interstitial cell, 193

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH),

197

Interstitial fluids, 24, 38

Intestinal mucosa, 145

Intra abdominal fat, 229

Intra-abdominal pressure (IAP), 156 Intracellular exchange, 11

Intracellular fluid (ICF), 9, 177 Intrafollicular fluid pressure, 200 Intrafusal fibers, 117

Intrafusal muscle fibres, 89, 90

Intralobular ducts, 211

Intramembranous ossification, 132 Intramuscular fat, 229

Intramuscular (IM) injection, 261 Intraperitoneal (IP) injection, 261 Intrapleural pressure (IPP), 156 Intrapulmonary pressure, 156

Intravenous (IV) injection, 261

Intrinsic factor, 142

Intrinsic muscles, 95

Intrinsic pathway, 33

Inverse stretch reflex, 90

Invertebrates, 93

Involution, 216 Iodine-containing hormones, 184 Ion channels, 75-76

leakage (non-gated), 75, 76 ligand-gated, 75, 76 mechanically-gated, 75, 76 voltage-gated, 75-76

Ionizing radiation, 250

Ionotropic glutamate receptors, 84-85

Ionotropic receptors (ligand-gated ion

channels), 76, 79, 81

IPP, see Intrapleural pressure

IPSPs, see Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials Iridogenic lenticonus, 96

Iron absorption, 145

Ischiocavernosus muscles, 196

Islets of Langerhans, 187

Isolated organ preparations, 262

Isometric contraction, 64

Isometric growth, 225

Isotonic contraction, 64

Isovolumetric contraction, 25

Isovolumetric relaxation, 25

Isthmus, 202

J

JAK family, see Janus kinase family

Janus kinase (JAK) family, 182

JAK2, 191

JAK-STAT pathway, 182

JGA, see Juxtaglomerular apparatus

Joint receptors, 117

Joint surgery, 136 Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), 172 Juxtaglomerular granular cells, 172 Juxtamedullary nephrons, 172

K

Kainate receptors, 85

Keratin, 212

Kidney, 168

blood and nerve supply to, 170, 171 development of, 169

functional anatomy of, 169 functions of, 168

internal anatomy of, 169-170 and liver, as endocrine organs, 191 nephrons, 170-172

Kinesthetic receptors, 117

Kinesthetic sensation, 115

Knee-jerk reflex, 90

Krebs’s cycle, 153

Krogh, August, 4

L

Laboratory animals, experiments on, 258 Lacis cells, 172

Lacrimal system, 93-94

Lactate utilizers bacteria, 151

Lactation cycle, 218

Lactation physiology, recent advances in, 220-222

Lactation system, physiology of, 207-222 Lactic acid, 151, 152

Lactiferous sinus, 208

Lactogenesis, 213, 215 Lactogenesis I/II, 218 Lamellae, 130 Lamina propria, 93 Large intestine

absorption in, 145 secretions in, 143-144 Larynx, 154 Late diastole, 25

Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), 98 anatomy, 98-99

monocular and binocular deprivation on, 102

physiology, 99

projections, 99

Lateral lamina, 209

Lateral suprasylvian (LS) area, 96 Laverdia-CA1, 41

LBD, see Ligand-binding domain

LD50, 260

Leakage (non-gated) ion channels, 75, 76 Learning and memory, 89

Lectin pathway, 47

Leptin, 188, 215

Leucocytes, 50

Leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF), 20 Leukemic cells, 52

Leukocytes (white blood cells), 25, 31, 51-53 Leukopoiesis, 31, 53

Leydig cells, 185, 193, 194, 197

LF, see Lipofuscin

Lgl, 17

LGN, see Lateral geniculate nucleus

LH, see Luteinizing hormone LHR, see Luteinizing hormone receptor Lidocaine, 261

Lieberkuhn crypts, 143

LIF, see Leukaemia inhibitory factor Life-course theory, 250

Life expectancy, 243-244 Ligand-binding domain (LBD), 182 Ligand-gated ion channels, 75, 76, 79, 81 Limbus, 93

Lipids, 9

Lipofuscin (LF), 245

Lipolysis, 189 Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), 41, 46 Liquid movement compensation, 113

Lister, Joseph, 4

Liver, as endocrine organs, 191 Lobes and lobules, 169, 211, 212

Local anaesthesia, 260 Locomotion, adaptations for, 136

Loop of Henle, 171, 175, 176

LPS, see Lipopolysaccharides

L tubules, 59

Ludwig, Carl, 168

Lungs, 154-155

capacities, 157

chloride shift at, 162

dead space (DS), 157-158 elasticity of, 155-156 factors preventing collapse, 156 oxygen transport in, 158 protection against damage, 155, 158 volumes, 157

Luteal-progesterone, 189

Luteinizing hormone (LH), 185, 190, 193, 197, 201, 214

Luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR), 185 Lymphatic capillaries, 38-39

Lymphatic plexuses, 211 Lymphatics, 24

Lymphatic system, 38

Lymphatic system disease, 41

Lymphatic vessels, 210

Lymph, composition of, 39

Lymph film in pleural, 156

Lymph flow, 38, 39

Lymph nodes (lymphatic nodes/lymph glands), 38-40

Lymphocytes, 51-53

B lymphocytes, 43-44

formation, and generation adaptive immunity, 43

humoral immunity, 44

T cells and cell mediate immunity, 43 and their role in immunity, 42-44 Lymphoid and myeloid stem cells, 52 Lymphokines, 48

Lymphopoiesis, 53

Lysis, 46, 47

Lysosomes, 11, 251

Lysozyme, 41

M

Macaca mulatto, 96 mAChRs, see Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors

Macrophages, 45, 46

Macroscopic (bone) structure, 130

Macula densa, 171-173

Maculae, 111

Magnesium ion, 13

Magnetoceptors, 115

Magnocellular (MC) neurons, 185

Main sensory trigeminal pathway, 121 Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) proteins, 45

Male reproductive system

accessory sex glands, 195

blood and nerve support, 196

hormones and their control, 197

male genital muscles, 196

penis, 195-196

physiology of, 193-197

semen, 195

spermatogenesis, 196 spermatogenic wave, 196-197

testes, 193-195

testosterone, secondary functions of, 197 transport of spermatozoa, 196

Malleus (hammer), 113

Malpighian corpuscle, 170

Mammalian ovaries, 198

Mammary epithelial cells (MECs), 212 Mammary gland, 208

development

growth factors, 214 hormonal influence, 214

disease conditions associated with, 218-220

endocrine secretion in, 214

external anatomy of, 207

fat pad and, 214-215

genesis of, 213-216

immunity, 212

internal structure of, 211-212

involution of, 216

locations of, 208

lymphatic vasculature of, 210 microscopic structure of, 211 stage of development, 213 vascular supply to and from, 209 veins of, 211

Mammary involution, 216

Mammary ridges, 207

Mammary stem cells and regeneration, 221 Mammogenesis, 213

birth to puberty, 213

conception to parturition, 214

fat pad and mammary gland significance, 214-215

genesis of mammary gland, 213-216 growth factors of mammary gland development, 214

hormonal influence of mammary gland development, 214

pre-natal development, 213

puberty to conception, 213 -214

Maneka Gandhi, 254

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL), 47 “Many plies”, 149

Master gland, 182

Mastication, 141

Mastitis, 218, 222

Maternal stress and milk composition, 221

Maternal to embryonic transition, 17

Maternal to zygote transition, 20 Maximum life span and life expectancy, 243-244

MBL, see Mannose-binding lectin

MBP, see Myelin basic protein

MCI, see Medical Council of India

Mechanically-gated ion channels, 75, 76 Mechanoreceptors, 89, 115

MECs, see Mammary epithelial cells

Medial lamina, 209

Medial lemniscal pathway, 120-121

Medical Council of India (MCI), 253, 254 Medulla, 39-40

Medulla oblongata, 26, 91, 129, 150

Medullary washout, 176

Megakaryocytes, 51, 53

Meissner corpuscle, 115

Meissner’s plexus, 140

Melatonin, 186-187, 237

Membrane granulosa, 200

Membranous labyrinth, 111

Memory B cells, 44

Memory T cells, 43

Merkel cells, 114

Merkel complex, 116

Mesangial cells, 172

Mesoderm, 18, 227

Mesonephric cells, 199

Mesonephros, 169

Mesovarium, 198

Metabolic clearance rate, 179

Metabolic regulation, 29

Metabolism, consequences of, 251

Metabotropic glutamate receptors

(mGluRs), 85

Metabotropic receptors (G protein-coupled receptors), 81, 87

Metanephros, 169

Methane, 153 mGluRs, see Metabotropic glutamate receptors

Micelles, 143

Microbial digestion, 151-152

Microbial protein, 152

Microbiomes, 220

Microelectrode techniques, 99

Microfilaments, 13

Microglia, 70-71

Microscopic (bone) structure, 130-131 Microtubules, 13

Micturition reflex, 92

Middle suprasylvian sulcus (MSS), 96

Milk fever, see Hypocalcemia

Milk synthesis

increased milking frequency (IMF) in ruminants and rodents, 217 and suckling intensity on hormones, 217-218

rate of secretion of milk, 217

role of nerves in milk secretion regulation, 217

secretion and its constituents, 216-217 ‘Mini-eye’, 93

Minimal air, 157

miR-202-3p, 20

Mitochondria, 12, 242

Mitochondrial free radical theory of aging, 247

Mitochondrial genome damage, 249

Mitral valve, 24

Mixed glands, 179

Mixing movements, 141

MLCK, see Myosin-light chain kinase

MLCP, see Myosin-light chain phosphatase MNC, see Mononuclear cells

Modulating reflexes, 89

Molecular and biochemical events, during development of animals, 19-20 Monocular and binocular deprivation, on lateral geniculate nucleus, 102 Monocytes, 46, 51-53

Monoglycerides, 145

Monokines, 48

Mononuclear cells (MNC), 51 Monopoiesis, 53

Monosaccharides, 145

Morula, 17-18

Motilin, 140, 188

Motor (efferent) neurons, 67, 69, 89

Motor nerves, 210

mRNA, 20

MSS, see Middle suprasylvian sulcus

Msx, 19

Mucosal epithelium, 198 Mucosal glycoproteins, 141

Mucus, 142

Mucus secretion, 144 Mullerian (paramesonephric) ducts, 197 Multi-oocyte follicles, 199 Multiple fibre summation, 65

Multipolar neurons, 70

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs),

82

Muscle contraction, 60 Ach receptor, 60-61 ATP role in myosin cross-bridge cycle and, 61 creatine phosphate, 62 effect of load on, 65 energy sources to carry out, 61-62 excitation contraction coupling, 60-61 glycolytic pathway, 62 mechanics behind, 63

muscle action potential and action potential curve, 63, 64

oxidative phosphorylation, 62 ratchet theory, 61, 62 regulatory role of troponin and tropomyosin in, 58

summation/tetanization/force modulation

in, 64-66 types, based on changes in length of muscle fibres, 64 unit of, 56 unloading of calcium for initiating

contraction, 61

Muscle curve, 63

Muscle fatigue, 66

Muscle fibers, 229

Muscles, 55

bones and, 130 classification of, 55 contraction, see Muscle contraction control of movement for posture adjustment, 56 control on, 55 excitability curve, 63-65 of eye, 94-95 fast-contracting/slow-contracting fibres,

62-63

fibres, 55, 62-63 movement, 55 refractory period in, 66 respiratory, 155 rigor/physiological contracture, 66 skeletal, see Skeletal muscles striated/non-striated, 55

Muscle spindle gamma motor neuron, 118 Muscle spindles, 89, 90, 117, 118

Muscular system, 5

Musculocavernous penis, 195

Myelinate axons, 71

Myelin basic protein (MBP), 19

Myeloid stem cells, 52

Myenteric plexus, 140

Myocarditis, 34

Myoepithelial cells, 212

Myofibres, 55

Myofibrils, arrangement of, 56-57

Myogenic response, 172

Myoglobin (myo Hb), 160

Myoid cells, 200

Myosin

and actin filaments, 56-57

ATPase activity, 63

molecular structure of, 58

Myosin-light chain kinase (MLCK), 186 Myosin-light chain phosphatase (MLCP), 186

N

N-acetyl serotonin, 186

nAChRs, see Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Naive B cells, 44

Nasal cavity, 154

Natriuretic peptides, 191

Natural killer (NK) cells, 248

Natural passive immunity, 48

Nautilus, 93

Nebulin, 59

Negative feedback loops, 2

Negative feedback system, 197

Negative growth, 225

Neoplasia, 218-219

Neospinothalamic pathway, 121

Nephrons, 168, 170-171

approximate number, in each kidney, 171

Bowman capsule, 170, 171 glomerulus, 170, 171 tubular portion of, 171 types of, 171-172

Nerve growth factor (NGF), 231

Nerve innervation, 210

Nerves role in milk secretion regulation, 217

Nerve transmission, 113

Nervous system (NS), 5-6

autonomic nervous system (ANS), 68 blood-brain barrier (BBB), 72-73 blood-CSF barrier, 72

cells of, 68

central nervous system (CNS), 67 divisions of, 67-68

electrochemical basis of neuronal function,

73-74

extracellular environment to CNS, 72 glial cells, see Neuroglia

nervous tissue, 68

neuromuscular synapse, 65-88 neurons, see Neurons

neurotransmitters of, 79-84 peripheral nervous system (PNS), 67-68 physiology of, 67-92

propagation of action potential, 78 reaction of neural tissue to injury, 71-72 reflexes of, 88-92

somatic nervous system (SNS), 67 synaptic transmission, 78-79

Nervous tissue, 68

NETs, see Neutrophil extracellular traps Neural regulation, 29

Neural tissue to injury, reaction of, 71-72 Neuroendocrine theory, 244-245

Neuroglia, 68, 70-71 astrocytes, 70 ependymal cells, 70 glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), 20

microglia, 70-71 oligodendrocytes, 71 satellite cells, 71 Schwann cells, 71 types of, 70

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ), 60, 86-88 boutons en passage, 87 parasympathetic signal transduction, 87-88 sympathetic signal transduction, 87 synaptic transmission at, 86

Neuromuscular synapse, see Neuromuscular junction

Neuronal cell body, 68-69 Neuronal membrane, 73 Neurons, 68-70

active transport in, 74-75 bipolar neurons, 69-70 concentration gradients, 74 electrochemical gradient in, 74-78 electrostatic forces in, 76-78 ion channels, 75-76 multipolar neurons, 70 passive transport in, 75 receptive field of, 120 somatosensory, 118, 119 structure of, 68 types of, 69 unipolar neurons, 69

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), 140, 188 Neurophysin, 185

Neurotensin, 140, 188 Neurotransmitters

adrenergic receptors, 83-84 cholinergic receptors, 81-82 glutamate receptors, 81, 84-85 grouping of, 80 inactivation of, 86 of nervous system (NS), 79-81 receptors of, 79, 81-84; see also specific entries

Neurulation, 18 Neutralisation, 46 Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), 41 Neutrophils, 41, 42, 51-53

NGF, see Nerve growth factor

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), 76, 81, 82

Nissl bodies, 69 Nitric oxide (NO), 29, 80 NK cells, see Natural killer cells NMDA receptors (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors), 85-86

NMJ, see Neuromuscular junction NO, see Nitric oxide

Nocioceptors, 116 Nodes of Ranvier, 71, 78 Non-chromosomal DNA, 15 Non-ciliated secretory cells, 202 Non-coding RNAs, 221 Non-collagenous proteins, 132 Non-invasive methods, to measuring heat stress, 221

Non-parenchymal cells, 211 Non-pituitary hormones, 179-180 Non-protein nitrogen, 147 Nonrenewable structures, physical wear of, 250

Non-sensory proprioceptive impulses, 118 Nonspecific immunity, see Innate immunity NOR (Nucleolar Organizer Region), 14 Noradrenaline, see Norepinephrine Norepinephrine, 26-29, 68, 79, 83, 87 NPY, see Neuropeptide Y

Nr2, 19 NRBCs, see Nucleated red blood cells NS, see Nervous system NT-proBNP (N-terminal pro-B-type

natriuretic peptide), 35 NTS, see Nucleus tractus solitarius Nuclear bag fibres, 89, 90, 117 Nuclear chain fibres, 89-90, 117 Nuclear hyaloplasm, 14 Nuclear matrix, 14 Nuclear membrane, 13-14 Nucleated red blood cells (NRBCs), 53 Nuclei (Nu), 199 Nucleolus, 14 Nucleoplasm, 14 Nucleosome, 14 Nucleus, 9, 13-14 chromosomes, 14 functions, 14

Nucleus posteromarginalis axons, 121 Nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), 91 Nutrient transport, 23, 25, 31 Nutrigenomics and milk composition, 221 Nutrition, 135, 230, 232, 250 Nutritional and feeding strategies, 240

O

Oculocardiac reflex, 92 Odorants, receptors for, 124 Oedema, 178

Olfaction, 123-124

central pathway for, 125-126 Olfactory-binding protein, 124 Olfactory bulb, 70, 123-124 Olfactory cells, 123, 124 Olfactory cilia, 123 Olfactory mucosa, 123 Olfactory system

anatomy of, 123, 124 central pathway for olfaction, 125-126 clinical correlations, 126 olfaction, 123-124 pheromones, 126 physiology of, 123-126 receptors for odorants, 124 transduction of olfactory stimulus, 125 Oligodendrocytes, 71 Oligopeptides, 141-142 Omasum, 147-149 Oocytes, 199 Oogenesis, 201 Opaque sclera, 93

Open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF),

136

Opsonisation and phagocytosis, 47 Order to disorder theory, 249 Organelles, 69

Organelle within an organelle, 13 Organ of Corti stimulation, 112

Organogenesis (organ formation), 19, 227 Organs of Corti, 112

Orgel, Leslie, 246

ORIF, see Open reduction and internal fixation Orthopedic surgery and rehabilitation, 136 Orthopnea, 156

Osmoreceptors, 115, 186

Osmoregulation, 178

Osseous labyrinth, 111

Ossicles, 110

Ossicle transmission, 112

Osteoarthritis

causes, 134

definition, 134

diagnosis and management, 136 symptoms, 134

treatment, 134

Osteoblasts, 130, 132

and bone formation, 133

bone matrix deposition, 133 differentiation, 133 mineralization, 133 regulation of activity, 133

Osteoclasts, 130, 132

Osteocytes, 130

Osteoporosis

causes, 134

definition, 134

diagnosis and management, 136 symptoms, 134

treatment, 134

Otoliths, 111

Outer vagina, 205

Ovarian follicles, 199-200

Ovarian medulla, 199

Ovary, 189, 198-199, 216

Oviduct/fallopian tube, 202-203

Ovulation fossa, 198

Ovum/egg, 201-203

Oxidative damage, 247-248

Oxidative phosphorylation, 62

Oxidative stress, 247

Oxygen delivery, 23, 27, 28, 31

Oxygen transport

alveolar air, 158

arterial blood, 158 carriage and transfer of of CO₂ by blood, 161 O₂ by blood, 159-160

dissociation curve, 160 expired air, 159 inspired air, 158 in lung, 158 in tissues, 159 venous blood, 158

Oxyntic glands, 142

Oxytocin, 3, 185, 186, 212, 216, 217-218

P

P450scc, 181

p66 protein, 248

Pacinian corpuscle, 115

Paleospinothalamic pathway, 121-122

PAMPs, see Pathogen-associated molecular patterns

Pancreas, 187-189

glucagon, 188-189

hormones, 188

insulin, 188

Pancreatic and bile secretions, 144

Pancreatic islets, 187

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP), 140, 188

Pancreatic secretions, 142

Par1, 17

Par3/Par6, 20

Par3-Par6-aPKC complex, 17

Paracortex, 39

Paradoxical reflex, 164-166

Parafollicular cells, 184

Parasympathetic division, 68

Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), 26,

27, 29, 91

Parasympathetic regulation, of cardiac output, 28

Parasympathetic signal transduction, 87-88

Parathyroid hormone (PTH), 133, 135

Parenchyma/epithelial tissue, 211

Parenteral injection, 21

Pars papillaris, 208

Partial pressure, 158

Parturition, 214

Passive antibodies, 48

Passive immunity, 48

Passive reabsorption, 174

Passive transport, in neurons, 74

Patellar reflex, see Knee-jerk reflex

Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA), 34

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), 46

Pathophysiology, 5, 7

Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), 213

Paunch, 147

Pavlov, Ivan, 4

Pax6, 19

PCI, see Pharmacy Council of India

PCT, see Proximal convoluted tubules

PDA, see Patent ductus arteriosus

Penis, 195-196

Pepsin, 142

Pepsinogen, 142

Peptide hormones, 180-181 functioning process of, 181-182 signaling mechanism of, 182

Peptide YY (PYY), 188

Per1, 186

Pericardium, 23

Perikaryon, 68

Perilymph transmission, 112

Peripheral blood, 51

Peripheral nervous system (PNS), 67-68, 79

Peripheral resistance, 26

Peritubular capillaries, 170

Peroxisomes, 11

P-glycoprotein (P-gp), 73

Pharmacy Council of India (PCI), 254

Pharynx, 6, 154

Phasic receptors, 115

Pheromones, 126

Phosphate buffer system, 177

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), 128

Phosphocreatine, 62

Phospholipase C (PLC), 128

Phospholipids, 9

Phosphorus, 135

Photoreceptor cell types, 94

Photoreceptors, 89, 115

pH regulation, 32

Physiological saline, 262

Physiology, 1

of aging, 242-252

association, with other sciences, 7-8 of auditory system, 109-113 of cardiovascular system, 23-36 cell and molecular physiology, 5 clinical physiology, 6 comparative physiology, 7 definitions and divisions of, 5-7 developmental physiology, 7, 16-20 of digestive system, 139-145 of digestive system of ruminants, 147-153 of endocrine system, 179-191 environmental physiology, 6-7 evolutionary physiology, 7 of excretory system, 168-178 feedback loops, 2-3 of female reproductive system, 198-206 of growth, 224-232 of gustatory system, 127-129 of haematological system, 50-53 history and background, 4-5 homeostasis, 1-2 of lactation system, 207-222 of lymphatic and immune system, 38-49 of male reproductive system, 193-197 of muscular system, 55-66 negative feedback loops, 2 of nervous system, 67-92 of olfactory system, 123-126 pathophysiology, 7 positive feedback loops, 2-3 principles of, 1-4 of respiratory system, 154-167 role in science and medicine, 8 of somatosensory system, 114-122 systemic physiology, 5-6 thermoregulation, 3-4 of visual system, 93-102 Physiopathology, 7 Pineal gland, 186-187

Pinna, 109 Pituitary gland, 182, 185, 216 Pituitary gonadotropins, 185 Pituitary hormones, 179 Pitx, 19

PKA, see Protein kinase A PKC, see Protein kinase C PL, see Placental lactogen Placenta, 189, 228-229 Placental lactogen (PL), 189, 214 Plasma, 25, 30, 50, 162 Plasmablast, 44 Plasma cells, 44, 205 Plasma membrane, see Cell membrane Plasma osmolarity, 175 Plasmin, 33 Plasminogen, 33 Plastic deformation, 133 Platelet plug formation, 32 Platelets (thrombocytes), 25, 31, 32, 51, 53 Plato, 253

PLC, see Phospholipase C Pleura, 156 Pluripotent stem cells, 52 PMNC, see Polymorphonuclear cells PNC, see Pneumotaxic centre Pneumotaxic centre (PNC), 163 PNS, see Parasympathetic nervous system;

Peripheral nervous system Poikilotherms, 237-238 Polymodal receptors, 119 Polymorphonuclear cells (PMNC), 50-51

Polypeptide/glycoprotein hormones, 180

Polypeptides, 141-142

Polypnea, 157

POMC, see Pro-opiomelanocortin

Positive feedback loops, 2-3

Posterior pituitary, 185

Posterior vagina, 205

Postnatal growth

factors affecting, 230-231 measurement of, 230 phases, 229-230 pre-pubertal phase, 229 pubertal phase, 229-230 reproductive phase, 230 senescence/aging phase, 230

Post-spermatogenesis, 193

Postsynaptic alpha-2 receptors, 83

Potassium (K+), 175

Potassium ions, 74, 75

Potassium leak channels, 76

Power house of cell, see Mitochondria

PP, see Pancreatic polypeptide

Precipitation, 46

Prehension, 141

Prenatal development changes, at cellular level, 17-20 cross section of early embryo, 18 early, 16 early embryonic development, events of, 18 factors responsible for early, 16-17 maternal to zygote transition, 20 molecular and biochemical events, 19-20

Prenatal growth, 226 cleavage, 226-227 differentiation, 227 factors affecting, 228-229 fetal growth, 227-228 organogenesis, 227 stages, 226-228

Pre-prohormones, 180

Pre-pubertal phase, 229

Prepuce, 196

Pressure changes, during normal respiratory cycle, 156

Presynaptic alpha-2 receptors, 83

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (PCA

Act, India) of 1960, 254

Primary active transport, 174

Primary cortical receiving area, 119

Primary sensory fibres (Group Ia), 90

Primary sensory neurons, 90

Primary somatosensory cortex, 119, 120

Primary spermatocytes, 196

Primordial follicles, 199

Procaine, 261

Procyon lotor, 96

Proerythroblasts, 53

Progenitor cells, 53

Progesterone, 189, 190, 204

Progesterone therapy, 201

Prohormones, 181

Proinflammatory cytokines, 41

Prolactin, 183, 215-218

Promine, 231

Pronephros, 169

Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), 183 Propioceptors, 89

Propionate, 152

Propionic acid, 152

Proprioception

body discriminative touch and, 120-121

face discriminative touch and, 121

Proprioceptive receptors, 117-119 mechanism of action, 117-118 of somatosensory system, 118

Proprioceptors, 115

Propulsive movements, 141

Prosser, C. Ladd, 4

Prostacyclin, 29

Prostaglandins, 172, 195, 251

PGF2α synthesis, 186

Prostate gland, 195

26S proteasome, 246

Protein buffer system, 178

Protein C, 33

Protein factory of the cell, 13

Protein hormones, 180

Protein kinase A (PKA), 87, 183, 185

Protein kinase C (PKC), 186

Protein/peptide hormones, 180-181

Proteins, 9, 30, 135, 141, 175

Protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), 182

Proteoglycans, 9

Protozoa, 151

Proximal convoluted tubules (PCT), 171

Proximate/inductive interaction, 19

PRRs, see Pattern recognition receptors

Pseudounipolar cells, 118

Pseudounipolar neurons, see Unipolar neurons Psychosociological theory, 249-250

Ptch, 19

PTH, see Parathyroid hormone

PTKs, see Protein tyrosine kinases

Pubertal phase, 229-230

Puerperal tetany, 219-220

Pulmonary respiration, 154

Pulmonary vagi, functions of, 164

Pulmonary valve, 24

Pupillary light reflex, 91

PURA, 19

Purkinje fibers, 26

Pyloric glands, 142

Pyrogens, 4

PYY, see Peptide YY

Q

Quarters, 208

R

RAAS, see Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

Raccoon (Procyon lotor), 96

Rapamycin (sirolimus), 252

Ras-MAPK, 182

Ras∕PI3K∕AKT, 182

Ratchet theory of muscle contraction, 61, 62

Rate of living theory, 249

Reabsorption

of amino acids, 174

of bicarbonates, 174

of glucose, 174

of important substances, 174-175 mechanism of, 174

of proteins and peptides, 175 routes of, 173, 174

of sodium, 174 tubular, 173, 174

Reactive nitrogen species (RNS), 247

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), 242, 247, 248 Receptive field, 120

mapping techniques, 100

Receptor adaptation, 115

Receptors, 2

specificity of, 119-120, 179

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK), 181, 182 Reciprocal innervation, 90

Red blood cells (RBCs, erythrocytes), 25, 30-31, 50, 52, 53

Red bone marrow, 50, 52, 131

Red fibres, 63

Reflex arc, 88-89

Reflexes

from circulatory system, 165 of nervous system, 88-92 from other part of body, 166 from respiratory system, 163-165

Refractory periods, 66, 78

Regurgitation contraction of reticulum, 150 Relative refractory period, 66, 78

Relaxin1 (RLN 1), 189

Renal blood flow, regulation of, 172-173

Renal corpuscles, 170, 171

Renal crest, 170

Renal physiology, historical perspectives of,

168

Renal plasma flow (RPF), 173

Renal system, 169

Renal tubules, substances secreted in segments of, 175

Renin, 172

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), 8, 26, 27, 29

Reno-renal reflexes, 170

Replicative senescence, 248

Reproduction hormones

chorionic gonadotropins, 189

estrogen, 189

placenta, 189

placental lactogen, 189

progesterone, 189 relaxins, 189 source/chemical structure/function/

characteristics, 190

Reproductive phase, 230

Reproductive system, 6

female, see Female reproductive system male, see Male reproductive system

RER, see Rough endoplasmic reticulum Residual volume, 157

Resorption lacunae formation, 132 Respiration, 154

chemical regulation of, 166-167 response to change in CO₂ tension, 166 response to change in H⁺, 167 response to change in O₂ tension, 166-167

classification, 154

functions, 154

mechanism of, 155

pacemaker of, 163

primary function, 154

secondary functions, 154

Respiratory cycle, 155

Respiratory rate, 156

of different animals, 158

Respiratory system, 6

bronchi, 154

chloride shift, 161-162

exhalation, 155

inhalation, 155

larynx, 154 nasal cavity, 154 oxygen transport, 158-160 pharynx, 154 physiology of, 154-167 pressure changes during normal respiratory cycle, 156

reflexes from, 163-165 reflexes from other part of body, 166 regulation of respiratory centre activity, 163-166

respiratory centres, 162-163 respiratory cycle, 155, 156 respiratory muscles, 155, 157, 165 respiratory rate of different animals, 158 respiratory sounds, 158

trachea, 154 transportation of respiratory gases, 162; see also Lungs

“Rest and digest” response, 68

Resting expiratory level, 157

Resting membrane potential, of neurons, 76

Resveratrol, 251

Rete testis, 194

Reticular/oesophageal groove reflex, 151

Reticulum, 147-149

Retinal homeobox (Rx) transcription factor, 94

Retine, 231

Retinol, 251

Retractor penis muscles, 196

Reverse pinocytosis, 11

Rhabdomeric photoreceptors, 94

Rheobase, 63

Rhesus monkeys, 96

Ribosomes, 13

Rickets and osteomalacia

causes, 134

definition, 134 diagnosis and management, 136 symptoms, 134

treatment, 134

Rigor mortis, 66

Rising phase of action potential, 77

RNA, 14, 15, 20, 221

RNS, see Reactive nitrogen species

Rod bipolars, 97

ROS, see Reactive oxygen species

ROT, see Rotenone

Rotenone (ROT), 247

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), 10, 180

Round Window, 110-111

RPF, see Renal plasma flow

rRNA, 13

RTK, see Receptor tyrosine kinases

Ruffini corpuscle, 115, 116

Rumen, 147-148 microorganisms, 148 pH, 147

Rumen acidosis, 151

Rumen-degradable protein, 152

Rumen-nondegradable protein, 152

Ruminant digestive system, 147-153 abomasum, 149

advantages of fermentation in reticulorumen, 150

eructation, 151 fermentative digestion in rumen, 150 microbial digestion, 150-151 microbial protein, 152 nutrient reabsorption in small

intestine, 153 omasum, 148, 149

other end products of fermentation in ruminants, 152

pregastric physiology, 149-150

reticulum, 148, 149

rumen, 147-148

ruminal-reticular contractions, 150-151 ruminant stomach, 147

volatile fatty acids (VFA), 150-152

Ruminant stomach, 147

Ruminococcus albus, 151

Ruminococcus flavefaciens, 151

Ruminoreticular contractions, 150 Ryanodine receptors, 60

S

Saccule, 111

SaII, 19

Saliva composition and major functions, 141-142, 149

Salivary influence, in gustation, 127 Sarcomeres, 56, 57, 59

Sarcoplasmic reticulum, 59

Sarcotubular system, 59

Satellite cells, 71

SC, see Superior colliculus

Scala media, 111

Schleiden, Matthias, 4

Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut, 4

Scholander, Per, 4

Schwann, Theodor, 4

Schwann cells, 71

SCN, see Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Scrotum, 195

SE, see Surface epithelium

Secondary active transport, 174

Secondary cortical receiving area, 119

Secondary oocyte, 201

Secondary sensory fibres (Group II), 90

Secondary sensory neurons, 90

Secondary spermatocytes, 196

Secrete macromolecules, 11

Secretin, 140, 187, 188

Secretion of digestive juices, 139

Secretory vesicles, 12

Selective reabsorption, 173

Selenium, 251

Self-transcribing active regulatory

region sequence (STARR sequence), 19

Semen, 195

Semilunar valves, 24, 25

Seminal plasma, 195

Seminal vesicles, see Vesicular glands Senescence, 135, 230, 242

Sense of smell, 123, 154

Sensor, 2

Sensory (afferent) neurons, 67, 69, 88-89

Sensory nerves, 210

Sensory receptors, 114 -118

classification of, 115

cutaneous receptors, 115-117 proprioceptive receptors, 117-119 somatosensory receptor, types of, 115-118 SER, see Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Serotonin (5-HT), 79

Sertoli cell, 193, 194, 197

Sex cells (haploid), 14

Sexual reproduction, 6

SF, see Surface follicle

Short-chain fatty acids, 151

SIADH, see Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion

Sigmoid growth curve, phases of, 232 Signal transduction, 179 Simple eyes, 93-94

Simple protein hormones, 180 Single-chambered eyes, 93 Sinoatrial (SA) node, 25 Sirtuins, 251

Skeletal muscles, 117

anchoring proteins, 59 arrangement of myofibrils, 56-57 contractile proteins, 57-58 insertion, 57 at multiple levels, 56 organization of, 55-59 regulatory proteins, 58-59 sarcomeres/actin and myosin filaments, 55, 57, 59

sarcotubular system, 59 striations in, 56 tissue, 5, 55

Skeletal system, 5 Sliding mechanism, see Ratchet theory of muscle contraction

Slow-twitch (Type I) muscle fibres, 63 Smad6, 19 Small intestine

absorption in, 144-145 nutrient reabsorption in, 153 secretions of, 143

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), 10, 181 Smooth muscles, 55 SNARE proteins, 79 Sneezing reflex, 165

SNS, see Somatic nervous system;

Sympathetic nervous system Sodium, reabsorption of, 174 Sodium absorption, 144 Sodium bicarbonate, 174 Sodium-dependent glucose cotransporter 2

(SGLT2), 174 Sodium ions (Na+), 74 Sodium leak channels, 76 Sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ ATPase),

17, 74

Soma, 68 Somatic nervous system (SNS), 67 Somatic reflexes, 88, 89 Somatomedins, 183 Somatosensory neurons, 118, 119 Somatosensory system

components of, 114-119

main sensory trigeminal pathway, 121 medial lemniscal pathway, 120-121 neospinothalamic pathway, 121 paleospinothalamic pathway, 121-122 pathways of, 120-122 physiology of, 114-122 receptor specificity, 119-120 sensory receptors, 114-118 somatosensory cortex, 119 somatosensory neurons, 118, 119 somatosensory receptor organ, 118 spinal trigeminal pathway, 122 Somatostatin, 140, 188 Somatotropin, see Growth hormone Somero, George, 4 Sound-conducting apparatus, 109-111 Sound-perceiving apparatus, 111-112 Sound receiving apparatus, 109

Sp5, 19

Spatial summation, 77 Sperm, 195, 204, 205 Spermatocytogenesis, 196 Spermatogenesis, 193, 196 Spermatogenic wave, 196-197 Spermatogonia, 196 Spermatozoa, 193

transport of, 196 Spermiation, 196 Spermiogenesis, 196 Spinal cord, role in reflex arc, 89 Spinal trigeminal pathway, 122 Splenic anemia, 51 Spongy bone, 130

SRE, see Steroid response elements

Stagnant hypoxia, 167 Staircase effect, 65 StAR, see Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

Stem cells, 252

Sternomastoid muscle, 155 Steroid hormones, 180, 181

functioning process of, 182 Steroidogenesis, 199 Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), 183

Steroid response elements (SRE), 182 Stimulatory G-proteins, 182

Stimuli, 6

Stimulus, 1, 2, 88-89

artefact, 63

communications, by gustatory system, 127-129

strength of, 65 Stomach, 142, 143 “Storage colon”, 145 Streak canal, 208 Strength-duration curve, see Excitability curve

Stress-induced premature senescence, 248 Stretch reflex, 89-91

Striated/non-striated muscles, 55 Stroma, 93

Subcutaneous (SC) fat, 229 Subcutaneous injection, 261 Subepithelial glands, 123 Submucosal plexus, 140

Substantia gelatinosa, axons of, 121 Superficial cutaneous sensations, 115 Superior colliculus (SC), 96 Suppressor T cells, 43

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), 186, 237 Surface epithelium (SE), 199 Surface follicle (SF), 199

Surgical instruments, 262-263 Suspensory apparatus, 208-209 Sustentacular cells, 123, 193 Sweat glands, 2

Sweet taste transduction, 128 Sympathetic division, 68 Sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 26, 27, 29, 91

Sympathetic regulation, of cardiac output, 27 Sympathetic signal transduction, 87 Synapses, 68

Synaptic cleft, 60

Synaptic transmission, 78-79

at neuromuscular synapse, 86 Synaptotagmin, 78 Synchrotron X-ray imaging, 20

Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH), 178

Systemic physiology, 5-6 cardiovascular system, 6 digestive system, 6 endocrine system, 6 integumentary system, 5 nervous system, 5-6 reproductive system, 6 respiratory system, 6 skeletal system, 5 urinary system, 6

System of membranes, 10

System physiology, 5

Systole phase, of cardiac cycle, 25

T

TA, see Tunica albuginea Tapetum lucidum, 96

Taste buds, of different species, 127

Taste receptors, 127

T-box protein (Tbx transcription factor), 19 TBX1/TBX2, 19

T cell receptors (TCRs), 45

T cells, 43, 248

TCRs, see T cell receptors

TE, see Trophectoderm Tear film, 93

Teat cistern, 208

Teat sphincter, 211

Telereceptors, 115

Telomere shortening, 249

Temperature, 250

conformers, 238

regulation, 32

regulators, 237

Temporal summation, 77 Tensile strength, 133

Terminal cisternae, 59

Testes, 193-195

cross-section of testicles, 194 ductus deferens, 194-195 epididymis, 194 and ovaries, 189

scrotum, 195

sertoli cell and Leydig cell, 193, 194 vas deferens, 194-195

Testosterone, 190, 197

secondary functions of, 197 Tetanisation, 65

TFPI, see Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor Th1∕Th2∕Th17∕Tfh cells, 43

Thalamic neurons, 129

Theca externa and interna, 200 Thermal adaptation, 235

Thermoneutral zone, 239 Thermoreceptors, 89, 115, 116 Thermoregulation, 3-4, 23, 25

Thermoregulatory reflex, 92 Thermotolerance, 220 Thermo TRPs, 116 Thoracic cage decrease expansion and recoil of, 157 growth of, 156

Thoracic duct, 24

Thoracic radiography (X-rays), 35 The three Rs rules, 257, 259

Threshold potential, 77

Thrombin, 33

Thrombocytes, see Platelets

Thrombopoiesis, 31, 53

Thymic hormones, 187

Thymic stimulating theory, 249 Thyroglobulin, 184

Thyroglobulin iodination, 184

Thyroid gland, 184, 216

Thyroid hormones, 2, 181, 215

function and mechanism of action, 184 Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), 183-185 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), 184 Thyroxin, 249

Thyroxine (T4), 184, 231

Tidal volume, 157

Tie, 195

Tight junction, 193

Tissue factor, 33

Tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), 33

Tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), 33

Titin, 59

TLRs, see Toll-like receptors

T lymphocytes, 42-43

TM, see Transport maximum

TNF, see Tumour necrosis factors

Toll-like receptors (TLRs), 46

Tongue, taste and location in, 127

Tonic receptors, 115

Total lung capacity, 157

Toughness, 133

tPA, see Tissue plasminogen activator Trachea, 154

Transport maximum (TM), 175

Treppe, see Staircase effect

TRH, see Thyrotropin-releasing hormone Tricuspid valve, 24

Trigger zone, 78

Triiodothyronine (T3), 184

Trophectoderm (TE), 17-18

Trophic peptide hormones, 181 Trophoectoderm∕trophoblast, 227 Tropomyosin, 56, 58-59

Troponin, 56, 57-59

TrpM5, 128

True stomach, see Abomasum

Trypsin, 142

Trypsinogen, 142

TSH, see Thyroid stimulating hormone

T tubules, 59, 61

Tubular reabsorption, 173, 174

Tubular secretion, 175

Tubulin, 13

Tubuloglomerular feedback, 173

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), 41 Tumour necrosis factors (TNF), 48

Tunica albuginea (TA), 193, 195, 199

Tunica dartos, 195

Tympanic membrane, 110

Tympany, 150

Type A spermatogonia, 196

Type B spermatogonia, 196

Tyrosine kinases, 20, 182

U

Udder, of the cow, 208-210

Unipolar neurons, 69

Unit membrane, 9

Upregulation∕downregulation, 179

Urea feeding, 153

Ureters, 170

Urethane, 261

Urethra, 170

Urethralis, 196

Urinary bladder, 170

Urinary system, 6

Urine formation, 168, 173

Urokinase, 33

Urticaria, 49

Uterine tubes, 202

Uteroferrin, 205

Utero-tubal junction (UTJ), 202 Uterus, 202-205

UTJ, see Utero-tubal junction Utricle, 111

V

Vagina, 205-206

Vaginal epithelium, 205 Vaginal mucous, 206

Valves, 24

“Valvulae conniventes”, 144

Variable region (Fab region), 44-45 Vasa recta, 176

Vas deferens, see Ductus deferens Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), 140, 183

Vasodilation, 3

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone), 29 Vasopressin receptors (VR), 186 VC, see Vital capacity; Visual cortex Veins, 24

Venous blood, 158

Venous system, 170

Ventral posterolateral (VPL) nucleus, 121 Ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM), 121, 122

Ventral trigeminal lemniscus, 121, 122 Ventricles, 24

Ventricular ejection, 25 Ventricular filling, 27

Ventricular septal defect (VSD), 34 Venules, 24

Vertebrates, 93 Vesalius, 253

Vesicular∕antral∕tertiary follicle, 199 Vesicular glands, 195

Vestibular, 205 Vestibular structure and function, 111, 112 Vestibulocochlear nerve, 111

VFA, see Volatile fatty acids

Villi (villus), 144

VIP, see Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide Visceral vaginal tunic, 195

Visceroceptors, 115

Visual cortex (VC)

anatomical configuration of, 99-100 binocularity in VC neurons, 101 cell types in, 100-101 deprivation at, 102

monocular and binocular deprivation on lateral geniculate nucleus, 102 physiological orientation of, 100 recovery from monocular deprivation effects, 102

role of auxiliary visual areas, 101 visual defects, 101

visually induced potentials in cortex, 101 Visual defects, 101

Visual pathway

accommodation, 95

in amphibious eyes, 95 avian mechanisms of, 95-96

in cats, 96

in racoon, 96

in rhesus monkeys, 96 cat retina architecture, 96-97 cat retina physiology, 97-98 projection, 98

Visual system animal eyes, 93-94 complex eyes, 94 lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), 98-99 muscles of eye, 94-95 parts of eye, 93-94 simple eyes, 93-94 visual cortex (VC), 99-102 visual pathway, 95-98

Vital capacity (VC), 157

Vitamin D, 135, 168

Volatile fatty acids (VFA), 149, 152 Volatile/gaseous anaesthetics, 260 Voltage-dependent magnesium blockade, 85 Voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels, 60, 76 Voltage-gated ion channels, 75-76 Voltage-gated potassium (K+) channels, 76 Voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels, 76 Voluntary waiting period (VWP), 221 von Behring, Emil, 4-5

VPL nucleus, see Ventral posterolateral nucleus

VPM, see Ventral posteromedial nucleus

VR, see Vasopressin receptors

VSD, see Ventricular septal defect

VWP, see Voluntary waiting period

W

Walford, Roy, 246

Walk-along theory, see Ratchet theory of muscle contraction

Warm-blooded animals, 237

Waste accumulation theory of aging, 245-246

Waste removal, 23, 25, 31

Water, 30, 132, 141

Water balance

bicarbonate buffer system, 177 excretion and osmoregulation, 178 maintenance of, 168

pathophysiology of electrolyte imbalance,

178

phosphate buffer system, 177 protein buffer system, 178 regulation of acid-base balance, 177 water gain, 176-177 water loss, 177

Water-insoluble/lipophilic hormones, 180 Water-soluble/hydrophilic hormones, 180 Weight-bearing exercise, 135

Weight management, for bone health, 137 Weismann, August, 244

W (ganglion) cells, 98

White blood cells (leukocytes), 25, 31, 51-53

White fat, 229

Whole blood, 51

William of Salicet, 168

Wilson's rule (1854), 236

Withdrawal and crossed extensor reflex, 91

Wnt (Wingless and Int-1) signaling pathway, 19

Wolffian (mesonephric) ducts, 197

Wolff's Law, 134

X

X (ganglion) cells, 97-98

Xenopus, 20

Y

Y (ganglion) cells, 97-98

Yellow bone marrow, 50, 131

Yolk sac, 18

Z

Z disks, 56, 57

ZO, see Zonula Occludens

Zona, 201

Zonula Occludens (ZO), 20

ZPA regulatory sequence (ZRS), 19

ZRS, see ZPA regulatory sequence

Zygote, 16, 226